*Corresponding Author: Ilayaraja S, Elephant Conservation and Care Centre, Wildlife
SOS, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh-281122. Email: [email protected]. 9
International Journal of Zoology and Applied Biosciences ISSN: 2455-9571
Volume 10, Issue 5, pp: 9-16, 2025 http://www.ijzab.com
https://doi.org/10.55126/ijzab.2025.v10.i05.002
Research Article
OPERATIONALIZING VETERINARY COMPLIANCE IN CAPTIVE ASIAN
ELEPHANTS (Elephas maximus): A VOLUNTARY
MANAGEMENT APPROACH
*Ilayaraja S, Srinu Srikanta Maharana, Baijuraj MV, Gochalan E, Rahul Prasad, Pramod
Rajpoot, Lalit K Jangid, Arun A Sha, Swami N Chaurasia, Bohbby Chauhan
Elephant Conservation and Care Centre, Wildlife SOS, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh-281122.
Article History: Received 12th July 2025; Accepted 31st August 2025; Published 30th September 2025
ABSTRACT
Providing preventive and therapeutic veterinary care to captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) requires methodologies
that uphold animal welfare while ensuring personnel safety. This study evaluates the implementation of a protected contact
(PC) management system in combination with operant conditioning using positive reinforcement to facilitate voluntary
participation in clinical procedures. This approach was applied to a range of routine and advanced veterinary interventions
in rehabilitated elephants, resulting in 100% compliance for pedicure, sphygmomanometry, and intramuscular injection;
96.4% for phlebotomy; 89.3% for oral examination; 75% for pulse oximetry; and 71.4% for thermometry. Moderate
compliance was observed for trunk wash (67.9%) and ocular ultrasonography (64.3%), while the lowest compliance was
recorded for electrocardiography (57.1%). These results demonstrate the efficacy of a welfare-centric, voluntary approach
in minimizing stress responses, reducing reliance on chemical restraint, and enhancing procedural compliance and safety
for both elephants and veterinary personnel.
Keywords: Asian elephant, Protected contact, Operant conditioning, Veterinary compliance, Welfare.
INTRODUCTION
The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus Linnaeus, 1758), is
currently listed as “Endangered” by the International Union
for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (Williams et al., 2020),
and protected under Schedule I of India’s Wildlife
(Protection) Amendment Act, 2022. As of January 2019,
India recorded a population of 2,675 captive elephants
under the custody of forest departments, elephant camps,
rescue and rehabilitation centers, zoos, and private owners
(MoEF, Govt. of India, 2019). Veterinary care for captive
elephants poses logistical and ethical challenges due to
their size, strength, intelligence, and potential for stress-
induced behavioral responses. Historically, elephants were
managed under a free-contact system, where mahouts
(handlers) maintained close physical interaction, often
using dominance-based methods (Fernando, 1989; Koehl,
2000; Locke, 2006). This approach carries significant
occupational risks, including serious injuries and fatalities,
due to the animals’ strength and unpredictable behavior
(Manoharan, 2020).
A paradigm shift towards protected contact (PC) has
gained momentum over recent decades (Desmond & Laule,
1991). PC systems utilize physical barriers between
elephants and handlers, promoting both safety and welfare.
In these systems, handlers maintain interaction through a
protective barrier, while elephants retain the freedom to
disengage from the interaction (Otten, 1994). The
Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) supports PC
systems, asserting that the future of elephant management
should be grounded in protected contact principles (Priest,
1994). When combined with operant conditioning using
positive reinforcement, elephants can be trained to
voluntarily cooperate with clinical procedures without
compromising their welfare (Laule & Whittaker, 2000;
Mellen & Ellis, 1996). The primary goal of positive
reinforcement training (PRT) is to replace negative
associations with husbandry tasks by reinforcing them with
Ilayaraja S et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 9-16, 2025
www.ijzab.com 10
rewarding experiences, such as receiving preferred food
items (Clubb & Mason, 2001). Numerous studies have
demonstrated the application of PRT to encourage
voluntary participation in veterinary procedures (Fagen et
al., 2014; MV, 2024; Selvaraj et al., 2025; Wendler et al.,
2019). However, the quantitative effectiveness of such
methods has rarely been documented. This paper evaluates
PRT outcomes in captive Asian elephants by documenting
compliance rates across various veterinary procedures.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Subjects and housing
Wildlife SOS, in collaboration with the Uttar Pradesh
Forest Department, has operated the Elephant Conservation
and Care Centre (ECCC) in Mathura district, Uttar Pradesh
since 2010. The facility is dedicated to the rescue and
rehabilitation of abused, exploited, and confiscated
elephants. Currently, 32 rescued Asian elephants, aged 1–
70 years, are housed and managed under a protected
contact system. After medical evaluation, 28 elephants
(87.5%) were enrolled in the operant conditioning program;
four were excluded due to medical reasons. All enrolled
elephants had prior exposure to basic operant conditioning
(MV, 2024) and underwent refresher and procedure-
specific training prior to implementation.
Training protocol
Training protocols were tailored based on each elephant’s
health status, behavior, and medical history. Food
preferences were determined through pairwise
comparisons. Clicker training was used, where the clicker
served as a secondary reinforcer paired with high-
preference food rewards (e.g., fruits, sugarcane, dates,
roasted gram). Training was conducted twice daily for 10–
15 minutes, focusing on clinical behaviors and employing a
systematic shaping approach. A behavior was considered
learned when performed reliably on three consecutive
occasions. Once foundational behaviors were established,
elephants were gradually desensitized to touch and medical
equipment using consistent positive reinforcement.
Clinical procedures and implementation
Phlebotomy
Ear vein desensitization was performed using antiseptics
and syringes. Blood sampling was carried out using a
butterfly cannula (Figure 1).
Pedicure
Elephants were trained to present their feet for manual
corrective toenail trimming and topical treatment (Figure
2).
Sphygmomanometry
Elephants were conditioned to keep their tails immobile for
90–120 seconds for blood pressure monitoring with
inflatable cuffs (Figure 3).
Figure 1. Blood collection from the auricular vein of a rehabilitated E. maximus using a butterfly cannula under protected
contact.
www.ijzab.com 10
rewarding experiences, such as receiving preferred food
items (Clubb & Mason, 2001). Numerous studies have
demonstrated the application of PRT to encourage
voluntary participation in veterinary procedures (Fagen et
al., 2014; MV, 2024; Selvaraj et al., 2025; Wendler et al.,
2019). However, the quantitative effectiveness of such
methods has rarely been documented. This paper evaluates
PRT outcomes in captive Asian elephants by documenting
compliance rates across various veterinary procedures.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Subjects and housing
Wildlife SOS, in collaboration with the Uttar Pradesh
Forest Department, has operated the Elephant Conservation
and Care Centre (ECCC) in Mathura district, Uttar Pradesh
since 2010. The facility is dedicated to the rescue and
rehabilitation of abused, exploited, and confiscated
elephants. Currently, 32 rescued Asian elephants, aged 1–
70 years, are housed and managed under a protected
contact system. After medical evaluation, 28 elephants
(87.5%) were enrolled in the operant conditioning program;
four were excluded due to medical reasons. All enrolled
elephants had prior exposure to basic operant conditioning
(MV, 2024) and underwent refresher and procedure-
specific training prior to implementation.
Training protocol
Training protocols were tailored based on each elephant’s
health status, behavior, and medical history. Food
preferences were determined through pairwise
comparisons. Clicker training was used, where the clicker
served as a secondary reinforcer paired with high-
preference food rewards (e.g., fruits, sugarcane, dates,
roasted gram). Training was conducted twice daily for 10–
15 minutes, focusing on clinical behaviors and employing a
systematic shaping approach. A behavior was considered
learned when performed reliably on three consecutive
occasions. Once foundational behaviors were established,
elephants were gradually desensitized to touch and medical
equipment using consistent positive reinforcement.
Clinical procedures and implementation
Phlebotomy
Ear vein desensitization was performed using antiseptics
and syringes. Blood sampling was carried out using a
butterfly cannula (Figure 1).
Pedicure
Elephants were trained to present their feet for manual
corrective toenail trimming and topical treatment (Figure
2).
Sphygmomanometry
Elephants were conditioned to keep their tails immobile for
90–120 seconds for blood pressure monitoring with
inflatable cuffs (Figure 3).
Figure 1. Blood collection from the auricular vein of a rehabilitated E. maximus using a butterfly cannula under protected
contact.
Ilayaraja S et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 9-16, 2025
www.ijzab.com 11
Figure 2. Voluntary foot presentation by E. maximus during pedicure enabling foot inspection and corrective toenail
trimming.
Ocular ultrasonography
Elephants were trained to tolerate the application of coupling gel and gentle probe contact for transpalpebral
ultrasonography (Figure 4).
Figure 3. Non-invasive sphygmomanometry using a digital blood pressure monitor.
www.ijzab.com 11
Figure 2. Voluntary foot presentation by E. maximus during pedicure enabling foot inspection and corrective toenail
trimming.
Ocular ultrasonography
Elephants were trained to tolerate the application of coupling gel and gentle probe contact for transpalpebral
ultrasonography (Figure 4).
Figure 3. Non-invasive sphygmomanometry using a digital blood pressure monitor.
Ilayaraja S et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 9-16, 2025
www.ijzab.com 12
Figure 4. Transpalpebral ocular ultrasonography in a rehabilitated E. maximus performed under protected contact with
operant conditioning
Electrocardiography
Electrodes were introduced and clipped onto the chest, elbows, and stifles, with ECG readings taken while elephants
remained calm (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Electrocardiographic (ECG) monitoring enabling accurate cardiac rhythm assessment.
Pulse oximetry
A probe was attached to the auricular pinna to measure arterial oxygen saturation and pulse rate (Figure 6).
www.ijzab.com 12
Figure 4. Transpalpebral ocular ultrasonography in a rehabilitated E. maximus performed under protected contact with
operant conditioning
Electrocardiography
Electrodes were introduced and clipped onto the chest, elbows, and stifles, with ECG readings taken while elephants
remained calm (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Electrocardiographic (ECG) monitoring enabling accurate cardiac rhythm assessment.
Pulse oximetry
A probe was attached to the auricular pinna to measure arterial oxygen saturation and pulse rate (Figure 6).
Ilayaraja S et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 9-16, 2025
www.ijzab.com 13
Figure 6. Measurement of arterial oxygen saturation (SpO₂) and pulse rate using a pulse oximeter probe attached to the
auricular pinna.
Thermometry
Elephants were trained to tolerate rectal insertion of a lubricated digital thermometer while maintaining stillness (Figure 7).
Figure 7. Rectal thermometry by using a flexible tip digital thermometer.
Trunk wash
Elephants were conditioned to hold and expel sterile saline from the trunk into sterile bags for microbial testing (Figure 8).
www.ijzab.com 13
Figure 6. Measurement of arterial oxygen saturation (SpO₂) and pulse rate using a pulse oximeter probe attached to the
auricular pinna.
Thermometry
Elephants were trained to tolerate rectal insertion of a lubricated digital thermometer while maintaining stillness (Figure 7).
Figure 7. Rectal thermometry by using a flexible tip digital thermometer.
Trunk wash
Elephants were conditioned to hold and expel sterile saline from the trunk into sterile bags for microbial testing (Figure 8).
Ilayaraja S et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 9-16, 2025
www.ijzab.com 14
Figure 8. Trunk wash procedure: (a) flushing of the trunk using sterile saline; (b) elephant in a trained "trunk hold"
position; (c) collection of effluent in a sterile bag.
Oral examination
Elephants were trained to lift their trunks and open their mouths for visual inspection of the oral cavity, with
documentation via photographs (Figure 9).
Figure 9. Oral cavity showing healthy molar occlusion during a routine oral examination
Intramuscular injection
Elephants were conditioned to remain stationary during injections into the shoulder or hip muscles for medication
administration (Figure 10).
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Figure 8. Trunk wash procedure: (a) flushing of the trunk using sterile saline; (b) elephant in a trained "trunk hold"
position; (c) collection of effluent in a sterile bag.
Oral examination
Elephants were trained to lift their trunks and open their mouths for visual inspection of the oral cavity, with
documentation via photographs (Figure 9).
Figure 9. Oral cavity showing healthy molar occlusion during a routine oral examination
Intramuscular injection
Elephants were conditioned to remain stationary during injections into the shoulder or hip muscles for medication
administration (Figure 10).
Ilayaraja S et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 9-16, 2025
www.ijzab.com 15
Figure 10. Administration of intramuscular injection at hip region under protected contact.
Figure 11. Compliance rates for various veterinary procedures in rehabilitated E. maximus (n=28).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Ten routine clinical procedures were evaluated for
compliance in 28 elephants. As shown in Figure 11, full
compliance (100%) was recorded for pedicure,
sphygmomanometry, and intramuscular injection.
Phlebotomy achieved 96.4% compliance, followed by oral
examination (89.3%). Pulse oximetry and thermometry
recorded moderate compliance at 75% and 71.4%,
respectively. Trunk wash procedures had 67.9%
compliance. The lowest compliance rates were observed for
ocular ultrasonography (64.3%) and electrocardiography
(57.1%).
CONCLUSION
The integration of protected contact and operant
conditioning represents a transformative advancement in
captive elephant healthcare. This approach enhances both
elephant autonomy and procedural safety, aligning with
www.ijzab.com 15
Figure 10. Administration of intramuscular injection at hip region under protected contact.
Figure 11. Compliance rates for various veterinary procedures in rehabilitated E. maximus (n=28).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Ten routine clinical procedures were evaluated for
compliance in 28 elephants. As shown in Figure 11, full
compliance (100%) was recorded for pedicure,
sphygmomanometry, and intramuscular injection.
Phlebotomy achieved 96.4% compliance, followed by oral
examination (89.3%). Pulse oximetry and thermometry
recorded moderate compliance at 75% and 71.4%,
respectively. Trunk wash procedures had 67.9%
compliance. The lowest compliance rates were observed for
ocular ultrasonography (64.3%) and electrocardiography
(57.1%).
CONCLUSION
The integration of protected contact and operant
conditioning represents a transformative advancement in
captive elephant healthcare. This approach enhances both
elephant autonomy and procedural safety, aligning with
Ilayaraja S et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 9-16, 2025
www.ijzab.com 16
modern welfare standards. Voluntary participation reduced
the need for chemical restraint, minimized stress, and
improved diagnostic accuracy. It also significantly
improved staff safety. The findings support the broader
adoption of PC systems as a replicable model for elephant
healthcare institutions seeking improved welfare outcomes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors express sincere gratitude to the Co-Founders of
Wildlife SOS, Mr. Kartick Satyanarayan and Smt. Geeta
Seshamani, for their unwavering support and guidance. We
thank the Uttar Pradesh Forest Department for their
continued collaboration and extend our appreciation to the
Wildlife SOS animal care staff for their dedication and
contributions to this program.
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors declare no conflict of interest
ETHICS APPROVAL
Not applicable
FUNDING
This study received no specific funding from public,
commercial, or not-for-profit funding agencies.
AI TOOL DECLARATION
The authors declares that no AI and related tools are used to
write the scientific content of this manuscript.
DATA AVAILABILITY
Data will be available on request
REFERENCES
Clubb, R., & Mason, G. (2001). A review of the welfare of
zoo elephants in Europe. Royal Society for the Prevention
of Cruelty to Animals.
Desmond, T., & Laule, G. (1991). Protected-contact
elephant training. AAZPA Annual Conference
Proceedings, 606–613.
Fagen, A., Acharya, N., & Kaufman, G. E. (2014). Positive
reinforcement training for a trunk wash in Nepal’s
working elephants: Demonstrating alternatives to
traditional elephant training techniques. Journal of
Applied Animal Welfare Science, 17, 83–97.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10888705.2014.856258
Fernando, S. B. U. (1989). Training working elephants. In
Animal Training: A review and commentary on current
practice (pp. 101–113). Universities Federation for
Animal Welfare.
Koehl, D. (2000). Elephant training. The Absolut Elephant
Encyclopedia. https://www.elephant.se/
Laule, G., & Whittaker, M. (2000). Protected contact and
elephant welfare. American Zoo and Aquarium
Association Annual Conference, Orlando, FL.
Locke, P. (2006). History, practice, identity: An
institutional ethnography of elephant handlers in
Chitwan, Nepal [Doctoral dissertation]. University of
Kent.
Manoharan, N. S. (2020). Occupational hazards and
welfare of mahouts and elephant handlers. In Caring for
Elephants: Managing Health & Welfare in Captivity (pp.
196–200). Project Elephant Division, MoEF&CC, GoI-
Wildlife Institute of India.
Mellen, J. D., & Ellis, S. (1996). Animal learning and
husbandry training. In Wild Mammals in Captivity (pp.
88–99). University of Chicago Press.
MV, B. (2024). Positive reinforcement of Elephants in
captivity. Trumpet A Quarterly Newsletter of the Project
Elephant, MoEF&CC, Government of India, 4(2), 49–52.
Otten, T. (1994, October). AZA Elephant Management
Guidelines. AZA Communiqué.
Priest, G. M. (1994). The changing face of elephant
management in the United States. Pachyderm, 18, 61–69.
Selvaraj, I., Gochalan, E., Sha, A. A., Prasad, R., Jangad, L.
K., & Rajput, P. (2025). Incidence of abnormality in
spinous processes of the thoracic vertebrae in abused
Asian Elephants with radiographic evidence. Gajah, 58,
19–28.
Wendler, P., Ertl, N., Flügger, M., Sós, E., Clauss, M., &
Hatt, J. (2019). Foot care in Asian elephants (Elephas
maximus) in European zoos. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine, 76–91.
Williams, C., Tiwari, S. K., Goswami, V. R., de Silva, S.,
Kumar, A., Baskaran, N., Yoganand, K., & Menon, V.
(2020). Elephas maximus. IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species.
www.ijzab.com 16
modern welfare standards. Voluntary participation reduced
the need for chemical restraint, minimized stress, and
improved diagnostic accuracy. It also significantly
improved staff safety. The findings support the broader
adoption of PC systems as a replicable model for elephant
healthcare institutions seeking improved welfare outcomes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors express sincere gratitude to the Co-Founders of
Wildlife SOS, Mr. Kartick Satyanarayan and Smt. Geeta
Seshamani, for their unwavering support and guidance. We
thank the Uttar Pradesh Forest Department for their
continued collaboration and extend our appreciation to the
Wildlife SOS animal care staff for their dedication and
contributions to this program.
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors declare no conflict of interest
ETHICS APPROVAL
Not applicable
FUNDING
This study received no specific funding from public,
commercial, or not-for-profit funding agencies.
AI TOOL DECLARATION
The authors declares that no AI and related tools are used to
write the scientific content of this manuscript.
DATA AVAILABILITY
Data will be available on request
REFERENCES
Clubb, R., & Mason, G. (2001). A review of the welfare of
zoo elephants in Europe. Royal Society for the Prevention
of Cruelty to Animals.
Desmond, T., & Laule, G. (1991). Protected-contact
elephant training. AAZPA Annual Conference
Proceedings, 606–613.
Fagen, A., Acharya, N., & Kaufman, G. E. (2014). Positive
reinforcement training for a trunk wash in Nepal’s
working elephants: Demonstrating alternatives to
traditional elephant training techniques. Journal of
Applied Animal Welfare Science, 17, 83–97.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10888705.2014.856258
Fernando, S. B. U. (1989). Training working elephants. In
Animal Training: A review and commentary on current
practice (pp. 101–113). Universities Federation for
Animal Welfare.
Koehl, D. (2000). Elephant training. The Absolut Elephant
Encyclopedia. https://www.elephant.se/
Laule, G., & Whittaker, M. (2000). Protected contact and
elephant welfare. American Zoo and Aquarium
Association Annual Conference, Orlando, FL.
Locke, P. (2006). History, practice, identity: An
institutional ethnography of elephant handlers in
Chitwan, Nepal [Doctoral dissertation]. University of
Kent.
Manoharan, N. S. (2020). Occupational hazards and
welfare of mahouts and elephant handlers. In Caring for
Elephants: Managing Health & Welfare in Captivity (pp.
196–200). Project Elephant Division, MoEF&CC, GoI-
Wildlife Institute of India.
Mellen, J. D., & Ellis, S. (1996). Animal learning and
husbandry training. In Wild Mammals in Captivity (pp.
88–99). University of Chicago Press.
MV, B. (2024). Positive reinforcement of Elephants in
captivity. Trumpet A Quarterly Newsletter of the Project
Elephant, MoEF&CC, Government of India, 4(2), 49–52.
Otten, T. (1994, October). AZA Elephant Management
Guidelines. AZA Communiqué.
Priest, G. M. (1994). The changing face of elephant
management in the United States. Pachyderm, 18, 61–69.
Selvaraj, I., Gochalan, E., Sha, A. A., Prasad, R., Jangad, L.
K., & Rajput, P. (2025). Incidence of abnormality in
spinous processes of the thoracic vertebrae in abused
Asian Elephants with radiographic evidence. Gajah, 58,
19–28.
Wendler, P., Ertl, N., Flügger, M., Sós, E., Clauss, M., &
Hatt, J. (2019). Foot care in Asian elephants (Elephas
maximus) in European zoos. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife
Medicine, 76–91.
Williams, C., Tiwari, S. K., Goswami, V. R., de Silva, S.,
Kumar, A., Baskaran, N., Yoganand, K., & Menon, V.
(2020). Elephas maximus. IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species.