*Corresponding Author: Gopal Anapana, Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, Maharajah’s College
Autonomous, Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh, India., Email: [email protected]. 146
International Journal of Zoology and Applied Biosciences ISSN: 2455-9571
Volume 10, Issue 5, pp: 146-156, 2025 http://www.ijzab.com
https://doi.org/10.55126/ijzab.2025.v10.i05.017
Research Article
PERCEPTIONS OF THE IDEAL AGE FOR PREGNANCY IN
VIZIANAGARAM: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
AND PUBLIC OPINION
*1Gopal Anapana, 2Ramakrishna S, 1Kola Ramalakshmi, 1Reddi Devi Bharathi, 1Lakkoju
Jeevana, 1Domana Karuna, 1Mahanthi Pallavi, 1Muppana Sravani and 1Pilaka Rama Krishna
1Department of Zoology, Maharajah’s College Autonomous, Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
2Department of Zoology, Government Degree College, Palasa, Srikakulam, Andhra Pradesh, India
Article History: Received 9th August 2025; Accepted 11th September 2025; Published 30th September 2025
ABSTRACT
The biologically optimal age for pregnancy, widely recognized as 20–30 years, is linked to peak fertility and reduced
maternal–neonatal risk, yet public perceptions are strongly shaped by sociocultural norms, educational exposure, family
expectations, and career priorities. This cross-sectional mixed-methods study, conducted between July and December 2024
with 264 participants in Vizianagaram, examined awareness, beliefs, and knowledge of the ideal age for pregnancy in
comparison with scientific evidence. The findings revealed that before exposure to scientific information, only 60.2% of
the participants identified early-to-mid-twenties as the optimal window, but this percentage increased significantly after the
intervention (t(264) = 42.81, p < .001). Awareness of fertility decline with age was reported by 71.2%, although only
14.4% recognized both early and late pregnancy risks. Internet and social media (26.1%) emerged as the most common
information sources, surpassing schools and healthcare professionals, and younger adults (18–25 years) demonstrated
significantly higher awareness levels (F(3, 260) = 157.44, p < .001). Thematic analysis highlighted career goals, family
pressure, lack of awareness, and media portrayals as the dominant influences shaping perceptions. These results suggest
that while public opinion in semiurban India often aligns with medical consensus, persistent misconceptions about fertility
decline and reliance on assisted reproductive technologies indicate the need for culturally sensitive, demographically
tailored educational strategies to support informed reproductive decision-making.
Keywords: Ideal Pregnancy Age, Fertility Awareness, Reproductive Health Education, Public Perception, Vizianagaram.
INTRODUCTION
The concept of the “ideal age for pregnancy” remains one
of the most debated questions at the intersection of
reproductive biology, public health, and societal norms.
From a biological perspective, fertility is at its peak during
the early to middle twenties, begins to decline gradually in
the late twenties, and decreases more sharply after the age
of 35, when maternal and neonatal complications also
increase significantly (Leridon, 2022; World Health
Organization [WHO], 2023). These biological realities are
well documented across clinical and epidemiological
research, yet public perceptions of the optimal childbearing
age vary widely across cultural, socioeconomic, and
geographic contexts. This divergence between scientific
evidence and lived reproductive practices underscores the
importance of exploring not only medical factors but also
the social and cultural forces that shape reproductive
decision-making. Over the past few decades, significant
socioeconomic transformations have shifted reproductive
timelines globally. Increasing educational attainment
among women, increasing career aspirations, delayed
marriages, and urbanization have collectively contributed to
an increase in maternal age at first birth in many high- and
middle-income countries (Rao et al., 2024; United Nations,
2023). This trend is particularly visible in urban centers,
where modernization and access to resources enable
women to postpone motherhood. Conversely, in rural and
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 146-156, 2025
www.ijzab.com 147
conservative communities, early childbearing continues to
be normalized and even encouraged, often driven by family
expectations, limited reproductive health literacy, and
inadequate access to contraceptives (Kaur & Singh, 2023).
These opposing trajectories of early pregnancies in rural
settings and delayed motherhood in urban areas have
created a widening gap between biological fertility patterns
and sociocultural norms of reproductive timing.
The rise of assisted reproductive technologies (ART) has
further complicated perceptions of the “right” time for
childbearing. Medical advances such as in vitro
fertilization, egg freezing, and surrogacy have expanded
reproductive options and fostered the belief, particularly in
urban populations, that fertility can be preserved or restored
well beyond natural limits (Zhao et al., 2022). However,
despite these advances, ART cannot fully compensate for
the biological decline in oocyte quality, nor does it
eliminate the heightened risks associated with advanced
maternal age, including gestational diabetes, hypertensive
disorders, and chromosomal abnormalities (ESHRE, 2024).
Research has shown that both men and women often
overestimate the effectiveness of ART, underestimating the
biological constraints of age-related fertility decline
(Sabarre et al., 2024). This misconception highlights the
urgent need for improved fertility awareness education that
balances optimism about medical possibilities with realistic
expectations. Public awareness of the decline in fertility
remains inconsistent across countries and demographic
groups. Cross-national surveys indicate that more than half
of women in high-income countries and nearly two-thirds
in low- and middle-income countries significantly
overestimate the age at which fertility begins to decline
(Ushiroyama et al., 2023; Jones et al., 2022). Even among
highly educated groups, studies from India and China have
revealed that over 40% of respondents overestimate their
reproductive lifespan and underestimate the risk of
pregnancy complications after age 35 (Li et al., 2024;
Chatterjee, 2023). These findings suggest that formal
education does not necessarily translate into accurate
fertility knowledge; instead, cultural narratives, media
portrayals, and family expectations continue to play
decisive roles in shaping reproductive choices.
Sociocultural determinants of reproductive timing remain
especially powerful in low- and middle-income countries.
In regions such as South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the
Middle East, early marriage and early childbearing are
often seen as markers of social stability and family honour,
leading to persistently high rates of adolescent and young
adult pregnancies (UNFPA, 2023). These practices, while
culturally embedded, are linked to elevated risks of
maternal anaemia, obstetric complications, and neonatal
mortality (WHO, 2023). In contrast, delayed childbearing
in urbanized societies is often rationalized as a strategy to
secure financial independence, professional stability, and
personal readiness before parenthood (Rao et al., 2024).
However, urban delay is also shaped by modern cultural
trends, including celebrity narratives of successful late-age
pregnancies, which create a false sense of reproductive
security and reinforce misconceptions that medical
interventions can indefinitely extend fertility (Peterson &
Marshall, 2023).
Gendered differences in reproductive health literacy
further complicate the landscape. Women are generally
more aware of fertility limitations than men are, yet
misconceptions about ART success rates and the
reversibility of reproductive aging persist across both
genders (Sabarre et al., 2024). In many cases, reproductive
decision-making is not entirely individual but is influenced
by family expectations, societal pressures, and marital
dynamics. Rural populations, in particular, often prioritize
sociocultural norms over medical guidance, with decisions
about childbearing shaped less by scientific evidence than
by communal traditions (Kaur & Singh, 2023). These
dynamics highlight the need for culturally sensitive health
interventions that consider both biomedical knowledge and
local sociocultural realities. Educational and community-
based interventions have demonstrated measurable impacts
on fertility awareness. School-based reproductive health
modules, when implemented early, have been shown to
improve knowledge retention and promote informed family
planning decisions (Ahern et al., 2023). Similarly,
community-level programs led by trained health workers
have been effective in dispelling myths and encouraging
timely reproductive decisions, especially in underserved
rural areas (Singh et al., 2025). Nonetheless, systematic
reviews reveal that most fertility awareness campaigns are
fragmented, lack cultural tailoring, and fail to address
structural barriers such as gender inequality, healthcare
access, and the affordability of fertility services (Borges et
al., 2023). Emerging digital platforms, including mobile
apps, webinars, and social media campaigns, have shown
promise in reaching younger demographics, although their
effectiveness depends on the accuracy, credibility, and
cultural relevance of their content (Vesala et al., 2022).
The tension between scientific recommendations and
public perceptions of the ideal pregnancy age illustrates the
broader challenge of aligning medical knowledge with
sociocultural realities. Fertility specialists and public health
experts consistently recommend that the biologically
optimal age for pregnancy lies between 20 and 30 years, a
period associated with the lowest maternal and neonatal
risks (Leridon, 2022; WHO, 2023). However, these
evidence-based guidelines often conflict with the lived
realities of women whose reproductive decisions are shaped
by career priorities, financial constraints, family
expectations, and misconceptions about fertility
preservation technologies. For many, especially in urban
contexts, the reliance on ART reinforces delayed
childbearing decisions, whereas in rural settings, cultural
norms and limited access to education perpetuate early
pregnancies. Both extremes too early or too late carry
significant risks, highlighting the importance of balanced
reproductive education that emphasizes not only biological
timelines but also sociocultural constraints.
Bridging this gap requires an integrated, multisectoral
approach that combines medical accuracy with cultural
sensitivity. Scholars have suggested that strategies for
improving fertility awareness should include professional
www.ijzab.com 147
conservative communities, early childbearing continues to
be normalized and even encouraged, often driven by family
expectations, limited reproductive health literacy, and
inadequate access to contraceptives (Kaur & Singh, 2023).
These opposing trajectories of early pregnancies in rural
settings and delayed motherhood in urban areas have
created a widening gap between biological fertility patterns
and sociocultural norms of reproductive timing.
The rise of assisted reproductive technologies (ART) has
further complicated perceptions of the “right” time for
childbearing. Medical advances such as in vitro
fertilization, egg freezing, and surrogacy have expanded
reproductive options and fostered the belief, particularly in
urban populations, that fertility can be preserved or restored
well beyond natural limits (Zhao et al., 2022). However,
despite these advances, ART cannot fully compensate for
the biological decline in oocyte quality, nor does it
eliminate the heightened risks associated with advanced
maternal age, including gestational diabetes, hypertensive
disorders, and chromosomal abnormalities (ESHRE, 2024).
Research has shown that both men and women often
overestimate the effectiveness of ART, underestimating the
biological constraints of age-related fertility decline
(Sabarre et al., 2024). This misconception highlights the
urgent need for improved fertility awareness education that
balances optimism about medical possibilities with realistic
expectations. Public awareness of the decline in fertility
remains inconsistent across countries and demographic
groups. Cross-national surveys indicate that more than half
of women in high-income countries and nearly two-thirds
in low- and middle-income countries significantly
overestimate the age at which fertility begins to decline
(Ushiroyama et al., 2023; Jones et al., 2022). Even among
highly educated groups, studies from India and China have
revealed that over 40% of respondents overestimate their
reproductive lifespan and underestimate the risk of
pregnancy complications after age 35 (Li et al., 2024;
Chatterjee, 2023). These findings suggest that formal
education does not necessarily translate into accurate
fertility knowledge; instead, cultural narratives, media
portrayals, and family expectations continue to play
decisive roles in shaping reproductive choices.
Sociocultural determinants of reproductive timing remain
especially powerful in low- and middle-income countries.
In regions such as South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the
Middle East, early marriage and early childbearing are
often seen as markers of social stability and family honour,
leading to persistently high rates of adolescent and young
adult pregnancies (UNFPA, 2023). These practices, while
culturally embedded, are linked to elevated risks of
maternal anaemia, obstetric complications, and neonatal
mortality (WHO, 2023). In contrast, delayed childbearing
in urbanized societies is often rationalized as a strategy to
secure financial independence, professional stability, and
personal readiness before parenthood (Rao et al., 2024).
However, urban delay is also shaped by modern cultural
trends, including celebrity narratives of successful late-age
pregnancies, which create a false sense of reproductive
security and reinforce misconceptions that medical
interventions can indefinitely extend fertility (Peterson &
Marshall, 2023).
Gendered differences in reproductive health literacy
further complicate the landscape. Women are generally
more aware of fertility limitations than men are, yet
misconceptions about ART success rates and the
reversibility of reproductive aging persist across both
genders (Sabarre et al., 2024). In many cases, reproductive
decision-making is not entirely individual but is influenced
by family expectations, societal pressures, and marital
dynamics. Rural populations, in particular, often prioritize
sociocultural norms over medical guidance, with decisions
about childbearing shaped less by scientific evidence than
by communal traditions (Kaur & Singh, 2023). These
dynamics highlight the need for culturally sensitive health
interventions that consider both biomedical knowledge and
local sociocultural realities. Educational and community-
based interventions have demonstrated measurable impacts
on fertility awareness. School-based reproductive health
modules, when implemented early, have been shown to
improve knowledge retention and promote informed family
planning decisions (Ahern et al., 2023). Similarly,
community-level programs led by trained health workers
have been effective in dispelling myths and encouraging
timely reproductive decisions, especially in underserved
rural areas (Singh et al., 2025). Nonetheless, systematic
reviews reveal that most fertility awareness campaigns are
fragmented, lack cultural tailoring, and fail to address
structural barriers such as gender inequality, healthcare
access, and the affordability of fertility services (Borges et
al., 2023). Emerging digital platforms, including mobile
apps, webinars, and social media campaigns, have shown
promise in reaching younger demographics, although their
effectiveness depends on the accuracy, credibility, and
cultural relevance of their content (Vesala et al., 2022).
The tension between scientific recommendations and
public perceptions of the ideal pregnancy age illustrates the
broader challenge of aligning medical knowledge with
sociocultural realities. Fertility specialists and public health
experts consistently recommend that the biologically
optimal age for pregnancy lies between 20 and 30 years, a
period associated with the lowest maternal and neonatal
risks (Leridon, 2022; WHO, 2023). However, these
evidence-based guidelines often conflict with the lived
realities of women whose reproductive decisions are shaped
by career priorities, financial constraints, family
expectations, and misconceptions about fertility
preservation technologies. For many, especially in urban
contexts, the reliance on ART reinforces delayed
childbearing decisions, whereas in rural settings, cultural
norms and limited access to education perpetuate early
pregnancies. Both extremes too early or too late carry
significant risks, highlighting the importance of balanced
reproductive education that emphasizes not only biological
timelines but also sociocultural constraints.
Bridging this gap requires an integrated, multisectoral
approach that combines medical accuracy with cultural
sensitivity. Scholars have suggested that strategies for
improving fertility awareness should include professional
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 146-156, 2025
www.ijzab.com 148
training for healthcare providers, curricular reforms to
incorporate reproductive health education into secondary
and tertiary education, culturally adapted messaging to
address region-specific misconceptions, and digital
engagement platforms that provide interactive, personalized
fertility information (Kaur & Singh, 2023; Zhao et al.,
2022; Ushiroyama et al., 2023). Furthermore, longitudinal
monitoring is needed to assess how evolving
socioeconomic and cultural dynamics influence perceptions
of pregnancy timing over time (Rao et al., 2024).
Against this backdrop, the present study contributes by
systematically examining public perceptions of the ideal
age for pregnancy in Vizianagaram and comparing them
with established scientific evidence. By analysing how
education, geographic location, cultural background, and
exposure to reproductive health information influence
reproductive choices, this study addresses a critical gap in
the literature, which has often examined biomedical or
sociocultural aspects of fertility in isolation rather than in
an integrated framework. The findings are expected to offer
valuable insights for policymakers, educators, and
healthcare providers, enabling the design of targeted
interventions that promote timely, informed, and culturally
sensitive reproductive decisions. Ultimately, aligning
public understanding with scientific evidence is essential
not only for reducing maternal and neonatal risks but also
for empowering women to make reproductive choices that
reflect both personal aspirations and biological realities.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Design
This research adopted a mixed-methods, cross-sectional
design that combined quantitative survey analysis with
qualitative thematic exploration. The integration of
methods allowed for both a statistical examination of public
perceptions and a contextual understanding of the
sociocultural influences shaping these perceptions. The
study was implemented in two phases. First, a systematic
literature review of peer-reviewed articles, demographic
surveys, and reports from international health organizations
was conducted via databases such as Scopus, PubMed, and
Web of Science. Keywords such as “ideal age for
pregnancy,” “fertility decline,” “maternal age,” and
“reproductive health education” guided the search to
establish a scientific baseline regarding the biologically
optimal age for pregnancy. Second, an empirical survey
was carried out via a structured questionnaire to collect
primary data on public perceptions of the ideal pregnancy
age, the reasons underlying these beliefs, and awareness of
age-related fertility and health risks. This design facilitated
direct comparisons between medical recommendations and
public opinion.
Participants and Sampling Strategy
A total of 264 participants were recruited between July
2024 and December 2024 through stratified random
sampling to ensure representation across age groups,
genders, education levels, and urban–rural residences.
Recruitment was achieved via institutional mailing lists
distributed through universities and community
organizations, online circulation through social media
platforms, and collaboration with community health
networks. Participants were eligible if they were aged 15
years and above and willing to provide informed consent.
Individuals younger than 15 years or unwilling to share
perceptions regarding pregnancy age were excluded.
Respondents with no prior exposure to pregnancy-related
information, such as very young adolescents without health
education exposure, were also excluded from participation.
Research Approach and Implementation
The analysis was structured around three dimensions. First,
scientific evidence was reviewed by collating medical
guidelines and epidemiological data related to fertility,
maternal health, and neonatal outcomes. Second, public
opinion was analysed quantitatively by evaluating survey
responses to determine trends, awareness levels, and
patterns of belief. Third, comparative interpretation was
undertaken to identify areas of convergence and divergence
between public perceptions and scientific evidence, further
stratified by demographic factors. Expert consultations with
gynecologists, reproductive health educators, and public
health officials complemented the findings by providing
insight into the implications of misinformation and
sociocultural pressures on reproductive decision-making.
Survey instrument
The survey instrument was designed to follow best
practices in reproductive health research and was validated
by a panel of three subject experts. It included close-ended
questions assessing perceived ideal age for pregnancy,
awareness of risks associated with early and delayed
pregnancy, and common sources of reproductive health
information. Likert-scale items were incorporated to
capture levels of agreement with scientific guidelines and
the influence of cultural, social, and technological factors.
Additionally, open-ended questions allowed participants to
elaborate on personal experiences and reasoning that
shaped their beliefs. A pilot test with 15 participants
ensured the clarity and relevance of the questionnaire,
leading to minor revisions before full-scale deployment.
Data analysis
Data analysis was conducted via IBM SPSS Statistics
Version 29. The quantitative data were summarized via
descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations,
frequencies, and percentages. One-way ANOVA was
applied to test for differences in perception scores across
demographic categories such as age, gender, education, and
location. Paired t tests were employed to evaluate changes
in perceptions before and after exposure to brief
educational prompts on fertility science, whereas Pearson
correlation analysis was used to examine associations
between awareness of scientific guidelines and perceived
ideal pregnancy age. Qualitative responses, including open-
www.ijzab.com 148
training for healthcare providers, curricular reforms to
incorporate reproductive health education into secondary
and tertiary education, culturally adapted messaging to
address region-specific misconceptions, and digital
engagement platforms that provide interactive, personalized
fertility information (Kaur & Singh, 2023; Zhao et al.,
2022; Ushiroyama et al., 2023). Furthermore, longitudinal
monitoring is needed to assess how evolving
socioeconomic and cultural dynamics influence perceptions
of pregnancy timing over time (Rao et al., 2024).
Against this backdrop, the present study contributes by
systematically examining public perceptions of the ideal
age for pregnancy in Vizianagaram and comparing them
with established scientific evidence. By analysing how
education, geographic location, cultural background, and
exposure to reproductive health information influence
reproductive choices, this study addresses a critical gap in
the literature, which has often examined biomedical or
sociocultural aspects of fertility in isolation rather than in
an integrated framework. The findings are expected to offer
valuable insights for policymakers, educators, and
healthcare providers, enabling the design of targeted
interventions that promote timely, informed, and culturally
sensitive reproductive decisions. Ultimately, aligning
public understanding with scientific evidence is essential
not only for reducing maternal and neonatal risks but also
for empowering women to make reproductive choices that
reflect both personal aspirations and biological realities.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Design
This research adopted a mixed-methods, cross-sectional
design that combined quantitative survey analysis with
qualitative thematic exploration. The integration of
methods allowed for both a statistical examination of public
perceptions and a contextual understanding of the
sociocultural influences shaping these perceptions. The
study was implemented in two phases. First, a systematic
literature review of peer-reviewed articles, demographic
surveys, and reports from international health organizations
was conducted via databases such as Scopus, PubMed, and
Web of Science. Keywords such as “ideal age for
pregnancy,” “fertility decline,” “maternal age,” and
“reproductive health education” guided the search to
establish a scientific baseline regarding the biologically
optimal age for pregnancy. Second, an empirical survey
was carried out via a structured questionnaire to collect
primary data on public perceptions of the ideal pregnancy
age, the reasons underlying these beliefs, and awareness of
age-related fertility and health risks. This design facilitated
direct comparisons between medical recommendations and
public opinion.
Participants and Sampling Strategy
A total of 264 participants were recruited between July
2024 and December 2024 through stratified random
sampling to ensure representation across age groups,
genders, education levels, and urban–rural residences.
Recruitment was achieved via institutional mailing lists
distributed through universities and community
organizations, online circulation through social media
platforms, and collaboration with community health
networks. Participants were eligible if they were aged 15
years and above and willing to provide informed consent.
Individuals younger than 15 years or unwilling to share
perceptions regarding pregnancy age were excluded.
Respondents with no prior exposure to pregnancy-related
information, such as very young adolescents without health
education exposure, were also excluded from participation.
Research Approach and Implementation
The analysis was structured around three dimensions. First,
scientific evidence was reviewed by collating medical
guidelines and epidemiological data related to fertility,
maternal health, and neonatal outcomes. Second, public
opinion was analysed quantitatively by evaluating survey
responses to determine trends, awareness levels, and
patterns of belief. Third, comparative interpretation was
undertaken to identify areas of convergence and divergence
between public perceptions and scientific evidence, further
stratified by demographic factors. Expert consultations with
gynecologists, reproductive health educators, and public
health officials complemented the findings by providing
insight into the implications of misinformation and
sociocultural pressures on reproductive decision-making.
Survey instrument
The survey instrument was designed to follow best
practices in reproductive health research and was validated
by a panel of three subject experts. It included close-ended
questions assessing perceived ideal age for pregnancy,
awareness of risks associated with early and delayed
pregnancy, and common sources of reproductive health
information. Likert-scale items were incorporated to
capture levels of agreement with scientific guidelines and
the influence of cultural, social, and technological factors.
Additionally, open-ended questions allowed participants to
elaborate on personal experiences and reasoning that
shaped their beliefs. A pilot test with 15 participants
ensured the clarity and relevance of the questionnaire,
leading to minor revisions before full-scale deployment.
Data analysis
Data analysis was conducted via IBM SPSS Statistics
Version 29. The quantitative data were summarized via
descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations,
frequencies, and percentages. One-way ANOVA was
applied to test for differences in perception scores across
demographic categories such as age, gender, education, and
location. Paired t tests were employed to evaluate changes
in perceptions before and after exposure to brief
educational prompts on fertility science, whereas Pearson
correlation analysis was used to examine associations
between awareness of scientific guidelines and perceived
ideal pregnancy age. Qualitative responses, including open-
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 146-156, 2025
www.ijzab.com 149
ended survey items and expert interview transcripts, were
analysed thematically via Braun and Clarke’s six-phase
approach. Coding was independently reviewed by two
researchers to enhance reliability, with discrepancies
resolved through discussion and consensus.
Case Study Component
To provide further depth, a case-based comparative
analysis was conducted by examining three participant
clusters: individuals with high awareness supported by
formal reproductive health education and healthcare access,
communities predominantly influenced by cultural or
religious norms encouraging early or delayed childbearing,
and urban youth prioritizing lifestyle and career
considerations in reproductive decision-making. Each
cluster was analysed to identify dominant cultural
narratives, primary sources of reproductive health
information, and their alignment or misalignment with
biological fertility timelines. This approach contextualized
the survey results within specific sociocultural frameworks
and highlighted the nuanced factors influencing perceptions
of the ideal age for pregnancy.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The present study surveyed 264 participants to examine
their perceptions of the ideal age for pregnancy, their
awareness of fertility risks, and the influence of
sociocultural and informational factors. The analysis
revealed that exposure to scientific information
significantly shifted perceptions regarding the reproductive
window, as confirmed by a paired samples t test, t(264) =
42.81, p < .001. This finding indicates that providing
evidence-based fertility knowledge can substantially alter
views, particularly among younger adults (18–25 years)
and those with limited prior awareness of maternal health
guidelines. While scientific consensus identifies the
optimal pregnancy age as between 20 and 30 years, which
is associated with peak fertility and lower complication
risks, public perceptions vary. Some participants favoured
20–25 years, citing biological readiness and family
stability, whereas others preferred 28–35 years to prioritize
career and financial security. These findings align with
earlier studies highlighting the biological advantages of
earlier pregnancies (Leridon, 2022; WHO, 2023; Singh et
al., 2025) while also reflecting the sociocultural
determinants of delayed childbearing noted by Rao et al.
(2024). As shown in Table 1, the mean perception scores
were highest for the 20–25 years age group (M = 4.6),
suggesting strong cultural reinforcement of early
childbearing, which is consistent with the findings of Kaur
and Singh (2023). In contrast, international data, such as
those from China (Li et al., 2024), highlight an increasing
preference for later pregnancies, underscoring the regional
differences influenced by culture and the economy.
Table 1. Mean perception scores by preferred age group for pregnancy.
Preferred Age Range Mean Score (1–5) Preference Level
20–25 years 4.6 Very High
26–30 years 3.8 High
Below 20 years 2.1 Low
Above 30 years 2.4 Low
Awareness of age-related fertility decline was relatively high, with 71.2% acknowledging that fertility decreases with age
(Figure 1), although 28.8% did not share this view. This mirrors the misconceptions documented in East Asia (Ushiroyama
et al., 2023). Similarly, perceptions of delayed pregnancy risk were mixed: while 36.4% regarded pregnancy after age 35
as very risky (Table 2; Figure 2), nearly 21% dismissed it as slightly risky or not risky, and 12.9% remained unsure. These
divided views echo Peterson and Marshall’s (2023) findings that late pregnancies are often normalized in media portrayals.
Table 2. Distribution of perceived risks of pregnancy at age ≥35 years.
Perception n %
Very risky 96 36.36
Somewhat risky 72 27.27
Slightly risky 41 15.53
Not risky at all 21 7.95
Not sure 34 12.88
www.ijzab.com 149
ended survey items and expert interview transcripts, were
analysed thematically via Braun and Clarke’s six-phase
approach. Coding was independently reviewed by two
researchers to enhance reliability, with discrepancies
resolved through discussion and consensus.
Case Study Component
To provide further depth, a case-based comparative
analysis was conducted by examining three participant
clusters: individuals with high awareness supported by
formal reproductive health education and healthcare access,
communities predominantly influenced by cultural or
religious norms encouraging early or delayed childbearing,
and urban youth prioritizing lifestyle and career
considerations in reproductive decision-making. Each
cluster was analysed to identify dominant cultural
narratives, primary sources of reproductive health
information, and their alignment or misalignment with
biological fertility timelines. This approach contextualized
the survey results within specific sociocultural frameworks
and highlighted the nuanced factors influencing perceptions
of the ideal age for pregnancy.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The present study surveyed 264 participants to examine
their perceptions of the ideal age for pregnancy, their
awareness of fertility risks, and the influence of
sociocultural and informational factors. The analysis
revealed that exposure to scientific information
significantly shifted perceptions regarding the reproductive
window, as confirmed by a paired samples t test, t(264) =
42.81, p < .001. This finding indicates that providing
evidence-based fertility knowledge can substantially alter
views, particularly among younger adults (18–25 years)
and those with limited prior awareness of maternal health
guidelines. While scientific consensus identifies the
optimal pregnancy age as between 20 and 30 years, which
is associated with peak fertility and lower complication
risks, public perceptions vary. Some participants favoured
20–25 years, citing biological readiness and family
stability, whereas others preferred 28–35 years to prioritize
career and financial security. These findings align with
earlier studies highlighting the biological advantages of
earlier pregnancies (Leridon, 2022; WHO, 2023; Singh et
al., 2025) while also reflecting the sociocultural
determinants of delayed childbearing noted by Rao et al.
(2024). As shown in Table 1, the mean perception scores
were highest for the 20–25 years age group (M = 4.6),
suggesting strong cultural reinforcement of early
childbearing, which is consistent with the findings of Kaur
and Singh (2023). In contrast, international data, such as
those from China (Li et al., 2024), highlight an increasing
preference for later pregnancies, underscoring the regional
differences influenced by culture and the economy.
Table 1. Mean perception scores by preferred age group for pregnancy.
Preferred Age Range Mean Score (1–5) Preference Level
20–25 years 4.6 Very High
26–30 years 3.8 High
Below 20 years 2.1 Low
Above 30 years 2.4 Low
Awareness of age-related fertility decline was relatively high, with 71.2% acknowledging that fertility decreases with age
(Figure 1), although 28.8% did not share this view. This mirrors the misconceptions documented in East Asia (Ushiroyama
et al., 2023). Similarly, perceptions of delayed pregnancy risk were mixed: while 36.4% regarded pregnancy after age 35
as very risky (Table 2; Figure 2), nearly 21% dismissed it as slightly risky or not risky, and 12.9% remained unsure. These
divided views echo Peterson and Marshall’s (2023) findings that late pregnancies are often normalized in media portrayals.
Table 2. Distribution of perceived risks of pregnancy at age ≥35 years.
Perception n %
Very risky 96 36.36
Somewhat risky 72 27.27
Slightly risky 41 15.53
Not risky at all 21 7.95
Not sure 34 12.88
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 146-156, 2025
www.ijzab.com 150
Figure 1. The incidence of fertility decreases with increasing maternal age.
Most respondents (71.2%) believed that fertility decreases with age, whereas 28.8% did not share this view.
Figure 2. Perceived risks of delaying pregnancy until the age of 35 years or older.
A majority (63.6%) considered delayed pregnancy risky, whereas 12.9% were unsure.
Cultural preferences for early parenthood also emerged strongly: 55.3% of the respondents reported having children before
age 25 (Figure 3), whereas 44.7% disagreed, citing financial or personal readiness. Comparable patterns have been
reported by the UNFPA (2023) in South Asia, where family pressures often encourage early pregnancies, whereas urban
youth tend toward postponement (Borges et al., 2023). The perceptions of maternal health risks were uneven across the
domains. Only 45.8% believed that stress could increase miscarriage risk, whereas 54.2% did not (Figure 4), despite strong
biomedical evidence linking stress to complications (Ahern et al., 2023). Similarly, mixed beliefs were reported regarding
yoga and reproductive health: 52.7% considered it beneficial, whereas 47.3% did not (Figure 5). These results illustrate
how traditional wellness practices coexist with, but sometimes diverge from, medical science.
Figure 3. Opinions on whether having children younger than the age of 25 years are better.
www.ijzab.com 150
Figure 1. The incidence of fertility decreases with increasing maternal age.
Most respondents (71.2%) believed that fertility decreases with age, whereas 28.8% did not share this view.
Figure 2. Perceived risks of delaying pregnancy until the age of 35 years or older.
A majority (63.6%) considered delayed pregnancy risky, whereas 12.9% were unsure.
Cultural preferences for early parenthood also emerged strongly: 55.3% of the respondents reported having children before
age 25 (Figure 3), whereas 44.7% disagreed, citing financial or personal readiness. Comparable patterns have been
reported by the UNFPA (2023) in South Asia, where family pressures often encourage early pregnancies, whereas urban
youth tend toward postponement (Borges et al., 2023). The perceptions of maternal health risks were uneven across the
domains. Only 45.8% believed that stress could increase miscarriage risk, whereas 54.2% did not (Figure 4), despite strong
biomedical evidence linking stress to complications (Ahern et al., 2023). Similarly, mixed beliefs were reported regarding
yoga and reproductive health: 52.7% considered it beneficial, whereas 47.3% did not (Figure 5). These results illustrate
how traditional wellness practices coexist with, but sometimes diverge from, medical science.
Figure 3. Opinions on whether having children younger than the age of 25 years are better.
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 146-156, 2025
www.ijzab.com 151
Slightly more than half of the respondents (55.3%) favoured younger parenthood, whereas 44.7% disagreed.
Figure 4. Beliefs about stress as a risk factor for miscarriage.
The responses were nearly divided, with 45.8% agreeing and 54.2% disagreeing that stress increases miscarriage risk.
Figure 5. Beliefs regarding yoga and reproductive health maintenance.
A minority endorsed yoga as beneficial (0.27%), whereas 42.9% disagreed, and over half were neutral or uncertain.
Pregnancy-related complications were also self-reported by a notable minority. For example, 19.7% experienced bleeding
during pregnancy (Figure 6), 18.9% reported amniotic fluid complications (Figure 7), 28.0% were advised to restrict
physical activity (Figure 8), and 22.3% encountered recovery issues after caesarean delivery (Figure 9). Additionally,
18.6% had experienced miscarriage (Figure 10). These findings emphasize the lived realities of pregnancy beyond
perception, highlighting the need for preventive care and counselling.
Figure 6. Self-reported experience of bleeding during pregnancy.
www.ijzab.com 151
Slightly more than half of the respondents (55.3%) favoured younger parenthood, whereas 44.7% disagreed.
Figure 4. Beliefs about stress as a risk factor for miscarriage.
The responses were nearly divided, with 45.8% agreeing and 54.2% disagreeing that stress increases miscarriage risk.
Figure 5. Beliefs regarding yoga and reproductive health maintenance.
A minority endorsed yoga as beneficial (0.27%), whereas 42.9% disagreed, and over half were neutral or uncertain.
Pregnancy-related complications were also self-reported by a notable minority. For example, 19.7% experienced bleeding
during pregnancy (Figure 6), 18.9% reported amniotic fluid complications (Figure 7), 28.0% were advised to restrict
physical activity (Figure 8), and 22.3% encountered recovery issues after caesarean delivery (Figure 9). Additionally,
18.6% had experienced miscarriage (Figure 10). These findings emphasize the lived realities of pregnancy beyond
perception, highlighting the need for preventive care and counselling.
Figure 6. Self-reported experience of bleeding during pregnancy.
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 146-156, 2025
www.ijzab.com 152
Most participants (79.2%) did not experience bleeding, whereas 19.7% did, and 1.1% reported other outcomes.
Figure 7. Experience of complications related to amniotic fluid levels.
While 81.1% reported no complications, 18.9% reported issues such as low or high fluid levels.
Figure 8. Advice was given to limit physical activity during pregnancy.
Nearly three-fourths (72.0%) were not advised to restrict activity, whereas 28.0% received such advice.
Figure 9. Complications faced during caesarean recovery.
Most respondents (77.7%) reported no complications, but 22.3% experienced issues such as infection or delayed healing.
www.ijzab.com 152
Most participants (79.2%) did not experience bleeding, whereas 19.7% did, and 1.1% reported other outcomes.
Figure 7. Experience of complications related to amniotic fluid levels.
While 81.1% reported no complications, 18.9% reported issues such as low or high fluid levels.
Figure 8. Advice was given to limit physical activity during pregnancy.
Nearly three-fourths (72.0%) were not advised to restrict activity, whereas 28.0% received such advice.
Figure 9. Complications faced during caesarean recovery.
Most respondents (77.7%) reported no complications, but 22.3% experienced issues such as infection or delayed healing.
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 146-156, 2025
www.ijzab.com 153
Figure 10. Self-reported experience of miscarriage.
Nearly one-fifth (18.6%) had experienced miscarriage, whereas 81.4% had not.
Awareness of the risks linked to pregnancy timing remained inadequate. Over half of the participants (53.0%) reported no
awareness of early or late pregnancy risks, whereas only 14.4% recognized both (Table 3; Figure 11). These gaps resonate
with earlier studies (Kaur & Singh, 2023; Ahern et al., 2023), which stressed the importance of structured reproductive
health education.
Table 3. Awareness of pregnancy-related risks among participants.
Awareness Category n %
Aware of both early and late pregnancy risks 38 14.39
Aware of early pregnancy risks only 46 17.42
Aware of late pregnancy risks only 40 15.15
Not aware of any pregnancy risks 140 53.03
Figure 11. Awareness of health risks associated with pregnancy timing.
Half (50.0%) were unaware of risks, whereas 14.4% were aware of both early and late pregnancy risks.
The sources of fertility knowledge further explain these
disparities: internet and social media (26.1%) were cited
more often than were schools (22.7%) or healthcare
professionals (20.5%) (Table 4). This finding reflects
global patterns (Vesala et al., 2022), where digital
platforms are primary sources of health information,
although they are often mixed in quality. This underscores
the importance of strengthening evidence-based health
communication through digital media. Thematic analysis
reinforced the survey findings, with career aspirations,
family pressure, lack of awareness, and media influence
emerging as key themes shaping reproductive decisions.
Importantly, younger respondents (18–25 years) had
significantly higher awareness scores than older
participants did, F(3,260) = 157.44, p < .001, which was
likely due to greater exposure to education and online
resources. However, awareness alone did not guarantee
accurate perceptions, as misconceptions about fertility
www.ijzab.com 153
Figure 10. Self-reported experience of miscarriage.
Nearly one-fifth (18.6%) had experienced miscarriage, whereas 81.4% had not.
Awareness of the risks linked to pregnancy timing remained inadequate. Over half of the participants (53.0%) reported no
awareness of early or late pregnancy risks, whereas only 14.4% recognized both (Table 3; Figure 11). These gaps resonate
with earlier studies (Kaur & Singh, 2023; Ahern et al., 2023), which stressed the importance of structured reproductive
health education.
Table 3. Awareness of pregnancy-related risks among participants.
Awareness Category n %
Aware of both early and late pregnancy risks 38 14.39
Aware of early pregnancy risks only 46 17.42
Aware of late pregnancy risks only 40 15.15
Not aware of any pregnancy risks 140 53.03
Figure 11. Awareness of health risks associated with pregnancy timing.
Half (50.0%) were unaware of risks, whereas 14.4% were aware of both early and late pregnancy risks.
The sources of fertility knowledge further explain these
disparities: internet and social media (26.1%) were cited
more often than were schools (22.7%) or healthcare
professionals (20.5%) (Table 4). This finding reflects
global patterns (Vesala et al., 2022), where digital
platforms are primary sources of health information,
although they are often mixed in quality. This underscores
the importance of strengthening evidence-based health
communication through digital media. Thematic analysis
reinforced the survey findings, with career aspirations,
family pressure, lack of awareness, and media influence
emerging as key themes shaping reproductive decisions.
Importantly, younger respondents (18–25 years) had
significantly higher awareness scores than older
participants did, F(3,260) = 157.44, p < .001, which was
likely due to greater exposure to education and online
resources. However, awareness alone did not guarantee
accurate perceptions, as misconceptions about fertility
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 146-156, 2025
www.ijzab.com 154
decline persisted in nearly one-third of the respondents.
Taken together, the findings across Figures 1–11 and
Tables 1–4 reveal a complex interplay between biological
knowledge, cultural norms, and modern influences in
shaping perceptions of pregnancy timing. In agreement
with Leridon (2022) and the WHO (2023), these results
confirm the general recognition that fertility decreases with
age but also highlight persistent misconceptions similar to
those observed globally (Ushiroyama et al., 2023; Li et al.,
2024). Addressing these gaps requires interdisciplinary
strategies that combine education, healthcare, and culturally
sensitive communication to bridge the gap between
scientific evidence and public perception, ultimately
supporting informed reproductive decision-making.
Sources of fertility knowledge further explain these
disparities: internet and social media (26.1%) were cited
more often than schools (22.7%) and healthcare providers
(20.4%). A full overview of participant responses across all
survey items, including sources of information, risk
perceptions, complications, and awareness levels, is
presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Summary of participant responses to key survey questions.
Question Options Percentage
Do you think that fertility decreases as a woman
gets older?
A. Yes :188
B. No :76
71.21%
28.79%
Do you think delaying pregnancy until the age 35
or later is risky?
A. Very Risky :96
B. Some Risky :72
C. Slightly Risky :41
D. Not Risky at All:21
E. Not Sure :34
36.36%
27.27%
15.53%
7.95%
12.88%
Where did you learn most about pregnancy and
fertility?
A. Schools :60
B. Parents and Elders:55
C. Internet/Social Media :69
D. Doctors/Health Professional:54
E. Personal Experience:
22.73%
20.83%
26.14%
20.45%
9.85%
What do you think having children at a younger
age (below 25) is better or worse?
A. Yes:146
B. No:118
55.3%
44.7%
Can stress increase the risk of miscarriage? A. Yes :121
B. No :143
45.83%
54.17%
Have you ever had to undergo a caesarean section? A Yes :60
B. No :204
22.73%
77.27%
Did you experience bleeding during your
pregnancy?
A. Yes:52
B. No :209
C. May Be :3
19.7%
79.17%
1.14%
Have you ever had a miscarriage? A. Yes :49
B. No:215
18.56%
81.44%
Have you experienced any complication with your
amniotic fluid levels?
A. Yes :50
B. No :214
18.94%
81.06%
Did you have any issues with foetal movement
during pregnancy?
A. Yes :46
B. No :216
C. May Be
17.42%
81.82%
0.76%
Have you been advised to limit physical activity
during pregnancy?
A. Yes :74
B. No :190
28.03%
77.65%
Did you face any complication during caesarean
recovery?
A. Yes :59
B. No :205
22.35%
77.65%
Are you aware of any risks related to late
pregnancy?
A. Yes, I Am Aware of Risks Related to Early and
Late Pregnancy :38
B. Yes, I Am Aware of Risks Related to Early
Pregnancy :46
C. Yes, I Am Aware of Risks Related to Late
Pregnancy Only :40
D. No, I Am Aware of Any Health Risks :140
14.39%
17.42%
15.15%
53.03%
Do health concerns influence your idea of when it`s
ideal to get pregnancy?
A. Yes :98
B. No :116
37.12%
62.88%
What do you think yoga is can maintain good
reproductive health?
A. Yes :139
B. No:125
52.65%
47.35%
www.ijzab.com 154
decline persisted in nearly one-third of the respondents.
Taken together, the findings across Figures 1–11 and
Tables 1–4 reveal a complex interplay between biological
knowledge, cultural norms, and modern influences in
shaping perceptions of pregnancy timing. In agreement
with Leridon (2022) and the WHO (2023), these results
confirm the general recognition that fertility decreases with
age but also highlight persistent misconceptions similar to
those observed globally (Ushiroyama et al., 2023; Li et al.,
2024). Addressing these gaps requires interdisciplinary
strategies that combine education, healthcare, and culturally
sensitive communication to bridge the gap between
scientific evidence and public perception, ultimately
supporting informed reproductive decision-making.
Sources of fertility knowledge further explain these
disparities: internet and social media (26.1%) were cited
more often than schools (22.7%) and healthcare providers
(20.4%). A full overview of participant responses across all
survey items, including sources of information, risk
perceptions, complications, and awareness levels, is
presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Summary of participant responses to key survey questions.
Question Options Percentage
Do you think that fertility decreases as a woman
gets older?
A. Yes :188
B. No :76
71.21%
28.79%
Do you think delaying pregnancy until the age 35
or later is risky?
A. Very Risky :96
B. Some Risky :72
C. Slightly Risky :41
D. Not Risky at All:21
E. Not Sure :34
36.36%
27.27%
15.53%
7.95%
12.88%
Where did you learn most about pregnancy and
fertility?
A. Schools :60
B. Parents and Elders:55
C. Internet/Social Media :69
D. Doctors/Health Professional:54
E. Personal Experience:
22.73%
20.83%
26.14%
20.45%
9.85%
What do you think having children at a younger
age (below 25) is better or worse?
A. Yes:146
B. No:118
55.3%
44.7%
Can stress increase the risk of miscarriage? A. Yes :121
B. No :143
45.83%
54.17%
Have you ever had to undergo a caesarean section? A Yes :60
B. No :204
22.73%
77.27%
Did you experience bleeding during your
pregnancy?
A. Yes:52
B. No :209
C. May Be :3
19.7%
79.17%
1.14%
Have you ever had a miscarriage? A. Yes :49
B. No:215
18.56%
81.44%
Have you experienced any complication with your
amniotic fluid levels?
A. Yes :50
B. No :214
18.94%
81.06%
Did you have any issues with foetal movement
during pregnancy?
A. Yes :46
B. No :216
C. May Be
17.42%
81.82%
0.76%
Have you been advised to limit physical activity
during pregnancy?
A. Yes :74
B. No :190
28.03%
77.65%
Did you face any complication during caesarean
recovery?
A. Yes :59
B. No :205
22.35%
77.65%
Are you aware of any risks related to late
pregnancy?
A. Yes, I Am Aware of Risks Related to Early and
Late Pregnancy :38
B. Yes, I Am Aware of Risks Related to Early
Pregnancy :46
C. Yes, I Am Aware of Risks Related to Late
Pregnancy Only :40
D. No, I Am Aware of Any Health Risks :140
14.39%
17.42%
15.15%
53.03%
Do health concerns influence your idea of when it`s
ideal to get pregnancy?
A. Yes :98
B. No :116
37.12%
62.88%
What do you think yoga is can maintain good
reproductive health?
A. Yes :139
B. No:125
52.65%
47.35%
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 146-156, 2025
www.ijzab.com 155
CONCLUSION
This study highlights that perceptions of the ideal age for
pregnancy are shaped by a complex interaction of
biological awareness, sociocultural expectations,
educational exposure, career priorities, and family
influence. While a majority of participants associated early-
to-mid-twenties with optimal childbearing, in line with
medical guidelines on peak fertility and lower maternal–
neonatal risks, persistent misconceptions regarding fertility
decline after 30 years and reliance on assisted reproductive
technologies indicate significant knowledge gaps. The
findings also show that exposure to scientific information
can meaningfully shift perceptions toward evidence-based
timelines, underscoring the importance of accessible and
accurate reproductive health education. Variations across
demographic groups further reveal that urban respondents
are more influenced by career and lifestyle aspirations,
whereas cultural norms and family pressures exert stronger
influence in semiurban settings. Overall, bridging the
divide between scientific consensus and public perception
requires not only the dissemination of factual knowledge
but also culturally sensitive, demographically tailored, and
digitally enabled approaches that empower individuals to
make informed reproductive decisions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research team sincerely acknowledges the support
provided by the Department of Zoology at Maharajah’s
Autonomous College, Vizianagaram. We are deeply
grateful to the students who participated in the survey.
Their candid responses and willingness to share personal
experiences made it possible to examine the lived realities
of young women managing menstrual irregularities. Special
thanks are also extended to the educational institutions in
Vizianagaram that facilitated data collection and
encouraged student-centred research initiatives. Their
collaboration reflects a strong commitment to fostering
undergraduate scholarships and inquiry.
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors declare no conflict of interest
ETHICS APPROVAL
Not applicable
FUNDING
This study received no specific funding from public,
commercial, or not-for-profit funding agencies.
AI TOOL DECLARATION
The authors declares that no AI and related tools are used to
write the scientific content of this manuscript.
DATA AVAILABILITY
Data will be available on request
REFERENCES
Ahern, T., Walker, S., & Fraser, I. (2023). School-based
reproductive health education: Impacts on fertility
awareness and planning behavior. Journal of Adolescent
Health, 72(4), 525–533.
Borges, A. L., Fujimori, E., & Kuschnir, M. C. (2023).
Effectiveness of public fertility awareness campaigns: A
systematic review. BMC Public Health, 23, 1984.
Chatterjee, S. (2023). Fertility misperceptions among
educated women: A cross-sectional study in urban India.
Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 29(1), 55–73.
European Society of Human Reproduction and
Embryology. (2024). Female fertility and age: Updated
clinical guidelines. ESHRE Guidelines.
https://www.eshre.eu
Jones, R., Kinsella, J., & McDonald, P. (2022). Perceptions
of fertility decline in developed countries: An
international survey. Human Fertility, 25(3), 421–431.
Kaur, P., & Singh, R. (2023). Rural–urban disparities in
reproductive health awareness and childbearing patterns
in India. Journal of Public Health Research, 12(4), 455–
466.
Leridon, H. (2022). The biological limits of human fertility:
Current knowledge and future prospects. Human
Reproduction Update, 28(6), 927–944.
Li, Y., Zhang, Q., & Chen, X. (2024). Fertility awareness
among educated women in China: Implications for
reproductive health policy. BMC Women's Health, 24,
102.
Peterson, H., & Marshall, L. (2023). Celebrity pregnancies
and the normalization of delayed motherhood: A media
discourse analysis. Health Communication, 38(2), 165–
175.
Rao, S., Mehta, A., & Verma, N. (2024). Shifting maternal
age trends: Socioeconomic and cultural determinants in
South Asia. Asian Population Studies, 20(1), 25–43.
Sabarre, K. A., Shapiro, G. K., & Ahmed, S. (2024).
Gendered differences in fertility knowledge and
decision-making: A global review. Reproductive Health,
21, 55.
Singh, A., Patel, V., & Arora, S. (2025). Maternal
outcomes and age at conception: Evidence from a
multicenter Indian study. Journal of Obstetrics and
Gynaecology Research, 51(1), 112–124.
United Nations Population Fund. (2023). Adolescent
pregnancy and child marriage: Global trends and
challenges. UNFPA. https://www.unfpa.org.
Ushiroyama, T., Matsuzaki, T., & Yoshida, Y. (2023).
Fertility awareness and reproductive decision-making in
www.ijzab.com 155
CONCLUSION
This study highlights that perceptions of the ideal age for
pregnancy are shaped by a complex interaction of
biological awareness, sociocultural expectations,
educational exposure, career priorities, and family
influence. While a majority of participants associated early-
to-mid-twenties with optimal childbearing, in line with
medical guidelines on peak fertility and lower maternal–
neonatal risks, persistent misconceptions regarding fertility
decline after 30 years and reliance on assisted reproductive
technologies indicate significant knowledge gaps. The
findings also show that exposure to scientific information
can meaningfully shift perceptions toward evidence-based
timelines, underscoring the importance of accessible and
accurate reproductive health education. Variations across
demographic groups further reveal that urban respondents
are more influenced by career and lifestyle aspirations,
whereas cultural norms and family pressures exert stronger
influence in semiurban settings. Overall, bridging the
divide between scientific consensus and public perception
requires not only the dissemination of factual knowledge
but also culturally sensitive, demographically tailored, and
digitally enabled approaches that empower individuals to
make informed reproductive decisions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research team sincerely acknowledges the support
provided by the Department of Zoology at Maharajah’s
Autonomous College, Vizianagaram. We are deeply
grateful to the students who participated in the survey.
Their candid responses and willingness to share personal
experiences made it possible to examine the lived realities
of young women managing menstrual irregularities. Special
thanks are also extended to the educational institutions in
Vizianagaram that facilitated data collection and
encouraged student-centred research initiatives. Their
collaboration reflects a strong commitment to fostering
undergraduate scholarships and inquiry.
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors declare no conflict of interest
ETHICS APPROVAL
Not applicable
FUNDING
This study received no specific funding from public,
commercial, or not-for-profit funding agencies.
AI TOOL DECLARATION
The authors declares that no AI and related tools are used to
write the scientific content of this manuscript.
DATA AVAILABILITY
Data will be available on request
REFERENCES
Ahern, T., Walker, S., & Fraser, I. (2023). School-based
reproductive health education: Impacts on fertility
awareness and planning behavior. Journal of Adolescent
Health, 72(4), 525–533.
Borges, A. L., Fujimori, E., & Kuschnir, M. C. (2023).
Effectiveness of public fertility awareness campaigns: A
systematic review. BMC Public Health, 23, 1984.
Chatterjee, S. (2023). Fertility misperceptions among
educated women: A cross-sectional study in urban India.
Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 29(1), 55–73.
European Society of Human Reproduction and
Embryology. (2024). Female fertility and age: Updated
clinical guidelines. ESHRE Guidelines.
https://www.eshre.eu
Jones, R., Kinsella, J., & McDonald, P. (2022). Perceptions
of fertility decline in developed countries: An
international survey. Human Fertility, 25(3), 421–431.
Kaur, P., & Singh, R. (2023). Rural–urban disparities in
reproductive health awareness and childbearing patterns
in India. Journal of Public Health Research, 12(4), 455–
466.
Leridon, H. (2022). The biological limits of human fertility:
Current knowledge and future prospects. Human
Reproduction Update, 28(6), 927–944.
Li, Y., Zhang, Q., & Chen, X. (2024). Fertility awareness
among educated women in China: Implications for
reproductive health policy. BMC Women's Health, 24,
102.
Peterson, H., & Marshall, L. (2023). Celebrity pregnancies
and the normalization of delayed motherhood: A media
discourse analysis. Health Communication, 38(2), 165–
175.
Rao, S., Mehta, A., & Verma, N. (2024). Shifting maternal
age trends: Socioeconomic and cultural determinants in
South Asia. Asian Population Studies, 20(1), 25–43.
Sabarre, K. A., Shapiro, G. K., & Ahmed, S. (2024).
Gendered differences in fertility knowledge and
decision-making: A global review. Reproductive Health,
21, 55.
Singh, A., Patel, V., & Arora, S. (2025). Maternal
outcomes and age at conception: Evidence from a
multicenter Indian study. Journal of Obstetrics and
Gynaecology Research, 51(1), 112–124.
United Nations Population Fund. (2023). Adolescent
pregnancy and child marriage: Global trends and
challenges. UNFPA. https://www.unfpa.org.
Ushiroyama, T., Matsuzaki, T., & Yoshida, Y. (2023).
Fertility awareness and reproductive decision-making in
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 146-156, 2025
www.ijzab.com 156
East Asia: A multicountry survey. Journal of Obstetrics
and Gynaecology Research, 49(5), 1548–1559.
Vesala, S., Rautio, A., & Jokela, M. (2022). Social media
as a platform for fertility education: Opportunities and
risks. Digital Health, 8, 20552076221136798.
World Health Organization. (2023). Infertility and age-
related fertility decline: Key facts. WHO Fact Sheet.
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets
Zhao, Q., Li, Y., & Chen, X. (2022). Misconceptions about
delayed childbearing and the limits of assisted
reproductive technologies: A systematic review.
Reproductive Biomedicine & Society Online, 15, 45–57.
www.ijzab.com 156
East Asia: A multicountry survey. Journal of Obstetrics
and Gynaecology Research, 49(5), 1548–1559.
Vesala, S., Rautio, A., & Jokela, M. (2022). Social media
as a platform for fertility education: Opportunities and
risks. Digital Health, 8, 20552076221136798.
World Health Organization. (2023). Infertility and age-
related fertility decline: Key facts. WHO Fact Sheet.
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets
Zhao, Q., Li, Y., & Chen, X. (2022). Misconceptions about
delayed childbearing and the limits of assisted
reproductive technologies: A systematic review.
Reproductive Biomedicine & Society Online, 15, 45–57.