*Corresponding Author: Gopal Anapana, Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, Maharajah’s
College Autonomous, Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh, India., Email: [email protected]. 119
International Journal of Zoology and Applied Biosciences ISSN: 2455-9571
Volume 10, Issue 5, pp: 119-131, 2025 http://www.ijzab.com
https://doi.org/10.55126/ijzab.2025.v10.i05.015
Research Article
THE IMPACT OF FAST-FOOD CONSUMPTION ON MENSTRUAL HEALTH
AMONG COLLEGE WOMEN: A CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY IN
VIZIANAGARAM, INDIA
1*Gopal Anapana, 2Chandra Sekhara Rao Gurubilli, 2Sowmya Mudunuru, 1Dasetti Kundan
Harshitha, 1Gantyada Bhanu prasad, 1Gedela Parvathi, 1Tummaganti Indhu, 1Madaka
Ramalakshmi, 1Kondaka Tharun and 1Arika Arun Kumar
1Department of Zoology, Maharajah’s College Autonomous, Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
2Department of Chemistry, Maharajah's College Autonomous, Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
Article History: Received 29th July 2025; Accepted 10th September 2025; Published 30th September 2025
ABSTRACT
The growing dependence on fast food among college students has raised concerns about its implications for women’s
reproductive health. This study explored the relationship between fast food consumption and menstrual health disturbances
among 300 female students aged 17–25 years in Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh. Using a structured, self-administered
questionnaire, data were collected on dietary intake, menstrual symptoms, lifestyle behaviours, and health awareness,
followed by statistical analysis through chi-square tests and logistic regression. Nearly half of the participants consumed
fast food more than twice a week, and higher intake was significantly associated with irregular menstrual cycles, prolonged
bleeding, dysmenorrhea, mood instability, fatigue, and absenteeism from academic activities (p < 0.05). Despite these
findings, only 20.8% of the respondents were aware of the impact of diet on their menstrual health, and more than half
reported making no effort to reduce fast food intake. This gap between awareness and practice reflects both limited
nutritional literacy and the normalization of menstrual discomfort. These results highlight that processed diets high in
sugars, saturated fats, and preservatives, coupled with micronutrient deficiencies, may disrupt hormonal balance and
exacerbate reproductive health issues. This study underscores the urgent need for integrated interventions, including
dietary education, menstrual health awareness, and healthier campus food policies, to promote informed lifestyle choices
among young women. By addressing these factors during the transitional college years, it may be possible to safeguard
both immediate well-being and long-term reproductive health outcomes.
Keywords: Fast food consumption, Menstrual health, Dysmenorrhea, Premenstrual syndrome, Nutritional awareness.
INTRODUCTION
In the 21st century, the dietary behaviours of young adults,
particularly college students, have undergone profound
changes characterized by a marked increase in fast food
consumption. The appeal of fast food lies in its
convenience, affordability, taste, and strong peer influence,
making it a regular part of student diets worldwide (Gupta
et al., 2021; Ahmed & Parveen, 2021). This transition,
however, has not been without consequences. Fast food is
often energy dense but nutrient poor, typically containing
high levels of saturated and trans fats, refined sugars,
sodium, and preservatives, while being deficient in
essential micronutrients such as fibre, iron, magnesium, and
B vitamins. These dietary imbalances are known to
contribute to obesity, insulin resistance, systemic
inflammation, and endocrine disruption, all of which can
interfere with hormonal balance and reproductive health
(Alsulami, 2020; Verma & Mehta, 2022). For women of
reproductive age, this raises significant concerns, as
nutrition is a critical factor in maintaining menstrual health.
Menstrual health, encompassing cycle regularity, duration,
flow, pain severity, and premenstrual symptoms, is a vital
indicator of female well-being and quality of life. It is
governed by the hypothalamic‒pituitary‒ovarian (HPO)
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 119-131, 2025
www.ijzab.com 120
axis, which is highly sensitive to metabolic cues, lifestyle
practices, and dietary intake (Bajalan et al., 2019). Any
disruption in this axis can manifest as irregular cycles,
dysmenorrhea, premenstrual syndrome (PMS), or more
complex conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome
(PCOS). Emerging research indicates that frequent fast
food consumption may contribute to these problems by
exacerbating inflammation, altering hormonal regulation,
and depriving the body of protective nutrients (Kulkarni et
al., 2018; Adele et al., 2019).
College life itself creates conditions that can amplify the
impact of poor dietary habits. The transition from
adolescence to adulthood is accompanied by increased
academic pressure, irregular schedules, greater
independence in food choices, and high psychosocial stress,
which together often encourage reliance on fast food (Jain
et al., 2020). For female students, the combination of fast
food intake and stress-related hormonal fluctuations may
worsen menstrual disturbances. Despite the growing
evidence of such associations, awareness among young
women about the role of diet in shaping menstrual health
remains limited. Many people continue to perceive
menstrual discomfort as a normal and unavoidable part of
life without recognizing that dietary modifications could
provide relief or prevent worsening of symptoms. Globally,
several studies have established connections between fast
food consumption and menstrual disturbances. Gupta et al.
(2021) reported that Indian college women who consumed
fast food frequently were more likely to experience
irregular cycles and severe PMS. Verma and Mehta (2022)
reported that processed foods negatively influence estrogen
regulation in adolescent girls, resulting in painful and
inconsistent periods. Similarly, Ahmed and Parveen (2021)
reported a higher prevalence of oligomenorrhea,
menorrhagia, and mood instability among young women
with high fast food intake. Adele et al. (2019) highlighted
not only physical symptoms such as cramps and fatigue but
also psychological consequences such as anxiety and
irritability in girls who consumed fast food more than three
times per week. These findings suggest that fast food
consumption may influence menstrual health both
physiologically and emotionally, affecting academic
performance, social participation, and overall well-being.
The mechanisms underlying these effects are rooted in
nutritional science. High-fat, high-sugar diets increase the
expression of inflammatory markers, promote oxidative
stress, and disrupt insulin sensitivity, which in turn can
interfere with ovarian function and hormone regulation
(Shaaban et al., 2014). Moreover, deficiencies in key
micronutrients, such as magnesium, vitamin B6, and
omega-3 fatty acids, which are often lacking in fast food,
are linked to severe dysmenorrhea, mood disorders, and
fatigue (Jahanfar & Lye, 2013; Bajalan et al., 2019). This
dual effect of excess harmful nutrients and a lack of
protective nutrients makes fast food particularly detrimental
to menstrual health. In the Indian context, the issue is
further complicated by cultural taboos surrounding
menstruation and limited awareness of menstrual health
literacy. Studies such as those of Jain et al. (2020) and
Pattanayak and Mishra (2021) revealed that although
menstrual complaints are common among college-aged
women, very few seek healthcare support or connect their
symptoms with modifiable lifestyle factors such as diet.
Traditional silence around menstruation often discourages
open discussion, resulting in young women being ill
equipped to recognize unhealthy patterns. Moreover, the
dietary transitions brought about by urbanization and
modernization involve the introduction of fast food into
semiurban and rural regions where traditional diets once
dominated. This makes populations such as those in
Vizianagaram particularly vulnerable, as they face both
growing exposure to fast food and inadequate access to
menstrual health education.
Despite the growing global literature, there remains a
paucity of research specifically isolating the role of fast
food in menstrual irregularities, particularly in semiurban
Indian populations. Most existing studies have examined
general dietary patterns without focusing on the unique
nutritional deficiencies and metabolic risks of fast food.
Consequently, the specific contribution of fast food to
menstrual disturbances in such settings remains poorly
understood. Given the increasing popularity of fast food in
smaller towns and semiurban regions, it is crucial to
generate region-specific evidence that reflects both the
changing dietary landscape and the cultural context of
women’s health. The present study seeks to address this
gap by investigating the association between fast food
consumption and menstrual health among college women
in Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh. It examines not only the
frequency and types of fast food consumed but also the
range of menstrual disturbances experienced, from irregular
cycles and heavy bleeding to cramps, fatigue, and
premenstrual mood swings. By analysing these
associations, this study aims to highlight dietary risk factors
that may otherwise be overlooked in reproductive health
discussions. Furthermore, it emphasizes the need for
preventive interventions, such as health education
programs, nutrition awareness initiatives, and campus-
based campaigns, that can empower young women to make
healthier choices.
The significance of this study extends beyond academic
interest. Clarifying the relationship between fast food
consumption and menstrual health offers practical insights
for policymakers, educators, and healthcare providers
working with young women in semiurban India. Promoting
nutritional literacy and encouraging healthier food habits
can help prevent not only menstrual discomfort but also
long-term reproductive disorders such as PCOS and
infertility. Ultimately, this research underscores diet as a
modifiable determinant of women’s reproductive health
and positions awareness and prevention as essential tools
for safeguarding the well-being of future generations.
www.ijzab.com 120
axis, which is highly sensitive to metabolic cues, lifestyle
practices, and dietary intake (Bajalan et al., 2019). Any
disruption in this axis can manifest as irregular cycles,
dysmenorrhea, premenstrual syndrome (PMS), or more
complex conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome
(PCOS). Emerging research indicates that frequent fast
food consumption may contribute to these problems by
exacerbating inflammation, altering hormonal regulation,
and depriving the body of protective nutrients (Kulkarni et
al., 2018; Adele et al., 2019).
College life itself creates conditions that can amplify the
impact of poor dietary habits. The transition from
adolescence to adulthood is accompanied by increased
academic pressure, irregular schedules, greater
independence in food choices, and high psychosocial stress,
which together often encourage reliance on fast food (Jain
et al., 2020). For female students, the combination of fast
food intake and stress-related hormonal fluctuations may
worsen menstrual disturbances. Despite the growing
evidence of such associations, awareness among young
women about the role of diet in shaping menstrual health
remains limited. Many people continue to perceive
menstrual discomfort as a normal and unavoidable part of
life without recognizing that dietary modifications could
provide relief or prevent worsening of symptoms. Globally,
several studies have established connections between fast
food consumption and menstrual disturbances. Gupta et al.
(2021) reported that Indian college women who consumed
fast food frequently were more likely to experience
irregular cycles and severe PMS. Verma and Mehta (2022)
reported that processed foods negatively influence estrogen
regulation in adolescent girls, resulting in painful and
inconsistent periods. Similarly, Ahmed and Parveen (2021)
reported a higher prevalence of oligomenorrhea,
menorrhagia, and mood instability among young women
with high fast food intake. Adele et al. (2019) highlighted
not only physical symptoms such as cramps and fatigue but
also psychological consequences such as anxiety and
irritability in girls who consumed fast food more than three
times per week. These findings suggest that fast food
consumption may influence menstrual health both
physiologically and emotionally, affecting academic
performance, social participation, and overall well-being.
The mechanisms underlying these effects are rooted in
nutritional science. High-fat, high-sugar diets increase the
expression of inflammatory markers, promote oxidative
stress, and disrupt insulin sensitivity, which in turn can
interfere with ovarian function and hormone regulation
(Shaaban et al., 2014). Moreover, deficiencies in key
micronutrients, such as magnesium, vitamin B6, and
omega-3 fatty acids, which are often lacking in fast food,
are linked to severe dysmenorrhea, mood disorders, and
fatigue (Jahanfar & Lye, 2013; Bajalan et al., 2019). This
dual effect of excess harmful nutrients and a lack of
protective nutrients makes fast food particularly detrimental
to menstrual health. In the Indian context, the issue is
further complicated by cultural taboos surrounding
menstruation and limited awareness of menstrual health
literacy. Studies such as those of Jain et al. (2020) and
Pattanayak and Mishra (2021) revealed that although
menstrual complaints are common among college-aged
women, very few seek healthcare support or connect their
symptoms with modifiable lifestyle factors such as diet.
Traditional silence around menstruation often discourages
open discussion, resulting in young women being ill
equipped to recognize unhealthy patterns. Moreover, the
dietary transitions brought about by urbanization and
modernization involve the introduction of fast food into
semiurban and rural regions where traditional diets once
dominated. This makes populations such as those in
Vizianagaram particularly vulnerable, as they face both
growing exposure to fast food and inadequate access to
menstrual health education.
Despite the growing global literature, there remains a
paucity of research specifically isolating the role of fast
food in menstrual irregularities, particularly in semiurban
Indian populations. Most existing studies have examined
general dietary patterns without focusing on the unique
nutritional deficiencies and metabolic risks of fast food.
Consequently, the specific contribution of fast food to
menstrual disturbances in such settings remains poorly
understood. Given the increasing popularity of fast food in
smaller towns and semiurban regions, it is crucial to
generate region-specific evidence that reflects both the
changing dietary landscape and the cultural context of
women’s health. The present study seeks to address this
gap by investigating the association between fast food
consumption and menstrual health among college women
in Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh. It examines not only the
frequency and types of fast food consumed but also the
range of menstrual disturbances experienced, from irregular
cycles and heavy bleeding to cramps, fatigue, and
premenstrual mood swings. By analysing these
associations, this study aims to highlight dietary risk factors
that may otherwise be overlooked in reproductive health
discussions. Furthermore, it emphasizes the need for
preventive interventions, such as health education
programs, nutrition awareness initiatives, and campus-
based campaigns, that can empower young women to make
healthier choices.
The significance of this study extends beyond academic
interest. Clarifying the relationship between fast food
consumption and menstrual health offers practical insights
for policymakers, educators, and healthcare providers
working with young women in semiurban India. Promoting
nutritional literacy and encouraging healthier food habits
can help prevent not only menstrual discomfort but also
long-term reproductive disorders such as PCOS and
infertility. Ultimately, this research underscores diet as a
modifiable determinant of women’s reproductive health
and positions awareness and prevention as essential tools
for safeguarding the well-being of future generations.
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 119-131, 2025
www.ijzab.com 121
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Design
This study adopted a cross-sectional survey-based design to
investigate the association between fast food consumption
and menstrual health among college-going women in
Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh. The survey approach was
selected for its suitability in capturing self-reported dietary
patterns, lifestyle factors, and menstrual health symptoms
from a large and diverse population within a defined time
frame.
Study Setting and Population
The study population comprised female undergraduate and
postgraduate students enrolled in various degree colleges in
Vizianagaram. This semiurban region was considered
appropriate, as it represents communities undergoing
dietary transitions due to urbanization, increased access to
processed foods, and changing lifestyle behaviours.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The study included female students aged 17-25 years with
either regular or irregular menstrual cycles who expressed a
willingness to provide informed consent. Participants were
excluded if they were pregnant or lactating; if they were
diagnosed with endocrine disorders such as thyroid
dysfunction or diabetes; or if they were receiving hormonal
therapy or medication that could influence their menstrual
cycles.
Sample size and sampling method
A total of 300 participants were selected through stratified
random sampling to ensure adequate representation across
different age groups, years of study, and academic
disciplines such as Arts, Sciences, and Commerce. The
sample size was calculated on the basis of a 95%
confidence interval and a 5% margin of error, taking into
consideration previous studies that reported a 30--40%
prevalence of menstrual irregularities (Adele et al., 2019;
Jain et al., 2020).
Data collection tool
A structured, self-administered questionnaire was used as
the primary data collection tool. The questionnaire was
developed after a review of validated instruments used in
earlier menstrual health studies and was culturally adapted
for the local setting. It underwent expert review by
specialists in gynecology and public health to ensure face
validity. The questionnaire covered demographic details,
frequency and type of fast food consumption, menstrual
characteristics, lifestyle factors such as sleep and physical
activity, and awareness regarding the impact of diet on
menstrual health.
Pilot testing
A pilot study was conducted with 30 students to evaluate
the clarity, comprehension, and average time required for
survey completion. On the basis of participant feedback,
minor modifications were introduced to improve the
wording of select items and to enhance cultural relevance
before the final deployment of the questionnaire.
Data collection procedure
The final survey was conducted over a one-month period in
early 2025. The participants were approached on campus
during class breaks and extracurricular activities. Informed
consent was obtained prior to participation, and the
confidentiality and anonymity of the respondents were
ensured throughout the process. Completion of the
questionnaire required approximately 15--20 minutes.
Data analysis
All the data were coded and entered into SPSS version 25
and Microsoft Excel for analysis. Descriptive statistics such
as frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations
were used to summarize demographic variables, dietary
habits, and menstrual health characteristics. Chi-square
tests were employed to examine associations between fast
food consumption and menstrual symptoms, including
irregularity, dysmenorrhea, and mood changes. Logistic
regression analysis was performed to determine the odds of
experiencing menstrual disturbances on the basis of the
frequency of fast food consumption while adjusting for
lifestyle-related confounders. A p value of less than 0.05
was considered statistically significant.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A total of 300 college-going women aged between 17 and
25 years participated in the study. The majority were aged
17–19 years (46%), followed by 20–22 years (38%). Most
were from the Science (42%) and Commerce (35.8%)
streams and resided in hostels (36.3%) or rented
accommodations (33.2%), reflecting moderate
independence in dietary choices (Table 2). Fast food intake
was highly prevalent. Daily consumption was reported by
13.3% of the participants; 35.8% consumed fast food 2–4
times per week, and 33.2% consumed fast food once per
week. A total of 67.7% of the students consumed fast food
in one or two meals per day, whereas 15.5% consumed it in
three or more meals (Figure 1). Preference was highest for
sugary snacks (36.7%), followed by burgers/pizzas (31.9%)
and fried foods (19%). Peer influence (32.7%),
convenience (30.5%), and taste preference (27%) were the
main motivators. Despite frequent consumption, health
awareness is limited. Only 13.7% consistently read
nutrition labels, whereas 35.8% did so rarely and 11.1%
never (Figure 2). This low nutritional literacy mirrors that
reported by Alsulami (2020), who reported poor health
consciousness in young populations.
www.ijzab.com 121
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Design
This study adopted a cross-sectional survey-based design to
investigate the association between fast food consumption
and menstrual health among college-going women in
Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh. The survey approach was
selected for its suitability in capturing self-reported dietary
patterns, lifestyle factors, and menstrual health symptoms
from a large and diverse population within a defined time
frame.
Study Setting and Population
The study population comprised female undergraduate and
postgraduate students enrolled in various degree colleges in
Vizianagaram. This semiurban region was considered
appropriate, as it represents communities undergoing
dietary transitions due to urbanization, increased access to
processed foods, and changing lifestyle behaviours.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
The study included female students aged 17-25 years with
either regular or irregular menstrual cycles who expressed a
willingness to provide informed consent. Participants were
excluded if they were pregnant or lactating; if they were
diagnosed with endocrine disorders such as thyroid
dysfunction or diabetes; or if they were receiving hormonal
therapy or medication that could influence their menstrual
cycles.
Sample size and sampling method
A total of 300 participants were selected through stratified
random sampling to ensure adequate representation across
different age groups, years of study, and academic
disciplines such as Arts, Sciences, and Commerce. The
sample size was calculated on the basis of a 95%
confidence interval and a 5% margin of error, taking into
consideration previous studies that reported a 30--40%
prevalence of menstrual irregularities (Adele et al., 2019;
Jain et al., 2020).
Data collection tool
A structured, self-administered questionnaire was used as
the primary data collection tool. The questionnaire was
developed after a review of validated instruments used in
earlier menstrual health studies and was culturally adapted
for the local setting. It underwent expert review by
specialists in gynecology and public health to ensure face
validity. The questionnaire covered demographic details,
frequency and type of fast food consumption, menstrual
characteristics, lifestyle factors such as sleep and physical
activity, and awareness regarding the impact of diet on
menstrual health.
Pilot testing
A pilot study was conducted with 30 students to evaluate
the clarity, comprehension, and average time required for
survey completion. On the basis of participant feedback,
minor modifications were introduced to improve the
wording of select items and to enhance cultural relevance
before the final deployment of the questionnaire.
Data collection procedure
The final survey was conducted over a one-month period in
early 2025. The participants were approached on campus
during class breaks and extracurricular activities. Informed
consent was obtained prior to participation, and the
confidentiality and anonymity of the respondents were
ensured throughout the process. Completion of the
questionnaire required approximately 15--20 minutes.
Data analysis
All the data were coded and entered into SPSS version 25
and Microsoft Excel for analysis. Descriptive statistics such
as frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations
were used to summarize demographic variables, dietary
habits, and menstrual health characteristics. Chi-square
tests were employed to examine associations between fast
food consumption and menstrual symptoms, including
irregularity, dysmenorrhea, and mood changes. Logistic
regression analysis was performed to determine the odds of
experiencing menstrual disturbances on the basis of the
frequency of fast food consumption while adjusting for
lifestyle-related confounders. A p value of less than 0.05
was considered statistically significant.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A total of 300 college-going women aged between 17 and
25 years participated in the study. The majority were aged
17–19 years (46%), followed by 20–22 years (38%). Most
were from the Science (42%) and Commerce (35.8%)
streams and resided in hostels (36.3%) or rented
accommodations (33.2%), reflecting moderate
independence in dietary choices (Table 2). Fast food intake
was highly prevalent. Daily consumption was reported by
13.3% of the participants; 35.8% consumed fast food 2–4
times per week, and 33.2% consumed fast food once per
week. A total of 67.7% of the students consumed fast food
in one or two meals per day, whereas 15.5% consumed it in
three or more meals (Figure 1). Preference was highest for
sugary snacks (36.7%), followed by burgers/pizzas (31.9%)
and fried foods (19%). Peer influence (32.7%),
convenience (30.5%), and taste preference (27%) were the
main motivators. Despite frequent consumption, health
awareness is limited. Only 13.7% consistently read
nutrition labels, whereas 35.8% did so rarely and 11.1%
never (Figure 2). This low nutritional literacy mirrors that
reported by Alsulami (2020), who reported poor health
consciousness in young populations.
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 119-131, 2025
www.ijzab.com 122
Figure 1. Distribution of daily meals, including fast food, among college women.
Most respondents (67.7%) reported consuming fast food at one or two meals per day, suggesting the regular incorporation
of fast food into their daily diets.
Figure 2. Frequency of reading nutritional labels before consuming fast food.
Only 13.7% of the participants always checked labels,
while nearly half rarely or never did, indicating limited
nutritional awareness. Menstrual disturbances were
frequent. Only 40.7% reported a normal cycle length (21–
35 days), while 30.1% experienced cycles longer than 35
days, and 14.2% had irregular cycles. The flow was mostly
moderate (42%) or heavy (39.4%), with very heavy flow in
7.5% of the participants (Figure 3). Prolonged bleeding of
6–7 days was reported by 42.9% of the patients. Irregular
cycles were significantly more common among high-fast
food consumers (≥3 times per week) than among low-fast
food consumers (<1 time per week) (54.3% vs. 26.1%, χ² =
14.82, p < 0.001) (Figure 4). Similarly, dysmenorrhea was
reported “often/always” by 63.8% of high consumers
compared with 34.6% of low consumers (χ² = 12.67, p =
0.001). Logistic regression revealed that consuming fast
food ≥3 times per week increased the odds of experiencing
irregular cycles by 2.74 (95% CI: 1.56–4.80, p < 0.01) and
severe PMS by 2.21 (95% CI: 1.28–3.85, p = 0.004) (Table
1). The case narratives reinforced these findings. For
example, Participant A (20 years, BMI 26), who consumed
fast food 5–6 times weekly, reported irregular cycles,
severe dysmenorrhea, bloating, fatigue, and poor
concentration, which is consistent with the trends observed
in the quantitative data. These findings parallel those of
Najafi et al. (2018), who associated fast food consumption
with greater bleeding and irregular menstruation.
www.ijzab.com 122
Figure 1. Distribution of daily meals, including fast food, among college women.
Most respondents (67.7%) reported consuming fast food at one or two meals per day, suggesting the regular incorporation
of fast food into their daily diets.
Figure 2. Frequency of reading nutritional labels before consuming fast food.
Only 13.7% of the participants always checked labels,
while nearly half rarely or never did, indicating limited
nutritional awareness. Menstrual disturbances were
frequent. Only 40.7% reported a normal cycle length (21–
35 days), while 30.1% experienced cycles longer than 35
days, and 14.2% had irregular cycles. The flow was mostly
moderate (42%) or heavy (39.4%), with very heavy flow in
7.5% of the participants (Figure 3). Prolonged bleeding of
6–7 days was reported by 42.9% of the patients. Irregular
cycles were significantly more common among high-fast
food consumers (≥3 times per week) than among low-fast
food consumers (<1 time per week) (54.3% vs. 26.1%, χ² =
14.82, p < 0.001) (Figure 4). Similarly, dysmenorrhea was
reported “often/always” by 63.8% of high consumers
compared with 34.6% of low consumers (χ² = 12.67, p =
0.001). Logistic regression revealed that consuming fast
food ≥3 times per week increased the odds of experiencing
irregular cycles by 2.74 (95% CI: 1.56–4.80, p < 0.01) and
severe PMS by 2.21 (95% CI: 1.28–3.85, p = 0.004) (Table
1). The case narratives reinforced these findings. For
example, Participant A (20 years, BMI 26), who consumed
fast food 5–6 times weekly, reported irregular cycles,
severe dysmenorrhea, bloating, fatigue, and poor
concentration, which is consistent with the trends observed
in the quantitative data. These findings parallel those of
Najafi et al. (2018), who associated fast food consumption
with greater bleeding and irregular menstruation.
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 119-131, 2025
www.ijzab.com 123
Table 1. Comparative analysis: High- vs low-fast food consumers.
Criteria Low Fast-Food Consumers High Fast Food Consumers
Cycle Regularity Mostly regular (26–32 days) Irregular, delayed, or missed periods
Pain & Cramps Occasionally or never Frequent to constant dysmenorrhea
PMS Symptoms Mild mood swings Severe mood instability, bloating
Fatigue Occasional Frequent, affecting academic activity
Absenteeism Rare Sometimes to frequently skip classes
Diet Rating Somewhat healthy to very healthy Mostly unhealthy or very unhealthy
Figure 3. Distribution of menstrual flow intensity among participants.
Over 80% reported moderate to heavy flow, which may reflect possible associations with dietary patterns such as frequent
fast food consumption.
Figure 4. Prevalence of irregular menstrual cycles among college women.
More than two-thirds reported some degree of irregularity,
potentially linked to lifestyle and dietary habits. Lifestyle
habits appeared to exacerbate menstrual outcomes.
Smoking (18.1%) and alcohol use (14.2%) were
uncommon (Figures 5 and 6), limiting their confounding
effects. Caffeine intake was low to moderate, with 38.1%
consuming it rarely and 22.6% never (Figure 7). However,
poor sleep and low physical activity were notable. Only
45.6% achieved 7–8 hours of sleep per night, whereas
27.9% slept fewer than six hours. Physical inactivity was
widespread, as only 12.4% exercised daily. Menstrual
discomfort often disrupted eating patterns, with 20.4%
skipping meals during menstruation and 33.6% sometimes
skipping (Figure 10). Kulkarni et al. (2018) argued that
such sedentary habits, when coupled with a poor diet,
dysregulate the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian axis,
thereby worsening menstrual irregularities, which is a
pattern that is consistent with the present study.
www.ijzab.com 123
Table 1. Comparative analysis: High- vs low-fast food consumers.
Criteria Low Fast-Food Consumers High Fast Food Consumers
Cycle Regularity Mostly regular (26–32 days) Irregular, delayed, or missed periods
Pain & Cramps Occasionally or never Frequent to constant dysmenorrhea
PMS Symptoms Mild mood swings Severe mood instability, bloating
Fatigue Occasional Frequent, affecting academic activity
Absenteeism Rare Sometimes to frequently skip classes
Diet Rating Somewhat healthy to very healthy Mostly unhealthy or very unhealthy
Figure 3. Distribution of menstrual flow intensity among participants.
Over 80% reported moderate to heavy flow, which may reflect possible associations with dietary patterns such as frequent
fast food consumption.
Figure 4. Prevalence of irregular menstrual cycles among college women.
More than two-thirds reported some degree of irregularity,
potentially linked to lifestyle and dietary habits. Lifestyle
habits appeared to exacerbate menstrual outcomes.
Smoking (18.1%) and alcohol use (14.2%) were
uncommon (Figures 5 and 6), limiting their confounding
effects. Caffeine intake was low to moderate, with 38.1%
consuming it rarely and 22.6% never (Figure 7). However,
poor sleep and low physical activity were notable. Only
45.6% achieved 7–8 hours of sleep per night, whereas
27.9% slept fewer than six hours. Physical inactivity was
widespread, as only 12.4% exercised daily. Menstrual
discomfort often disrupted eating patterns, with 20.4%
skipping meals during menstruation and 33.6% sometimes
skipping (Figure 10). Kulkarni et al. (2018) argued that
such sedentary habits, when coupled with a poor diet,
dysregulate the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian axis,
thereby worsening menstrual irregularities, which is a
pattern that is consistent with the present study.
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 119-131, 2025
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Figure 5. Smoking habits of college women in relation to menstrual health.
A large majority (81.9%) did not smoke, suggesting that smoking was not a major confounding factor in this study.
Figure 6. Alcohol consumption among college women.
Most participants (85.8%) reported not consuming alcohol, reducing its role as a confounding variable in the dietary
analysis.
Figure 7. Frequency of caffeine consumption among participants.
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Figure 5. Smoking habits of college women in relation to menstrual health.
A large majority (81.9%) did not smoke, suggesting that smoking was not a major confounding factor in this study.
Figure 6. Alcohol consumption among college women.
Most participants (85.8%) reported not consuming alcohol, reducing its role as a confounding variable in the dietary
analysis.
Figure 7. Frequency of caffeine consumption among participants.
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 119-131, 2025
www.ijzab.com 125
Caffeine intake was generally low, with most consuming it
rarely or never, although occasional use remains common.
Awareness regarding the role of diet in menstrual health
was poor. Only 20.8% acknowledged a dietary link, 44.7%
denied it, and 34.5% were unsure (Figure 8). When asked if
reducing fast food intake could improve menstrual
symptoms, 45.6% responded “No” and 30.1% “Not sure,”
with only 24.3% agree (Figure 9). Attitudes toward fast
food and menstrual health reflected scepticism. Over half
(53.1%) did not believe that fast food worsened their
symptoms, whereas 29.2% were unsure (Figure 12). This
translated into limited behavioural change, with 52.7%
reporting no attempts to reduce fast food intake for
menstrual improvement, 20.8% reporting efforts, and
26.5% planning to reduce intake (Figure 13). Nutritional
supplementation was inconsistent; only 20.8% of the
participants used supplements regularly, 45.6% used
supplements occasionally, and 33.6% never used
supplements (Figure 11).
Figure 8. Awareness of the impact of diet on menstrual health.
Fewer than one quarter of the participants were fully aware of the role of diet in their menstrual health, highlighting a
significant knowledge gap.
Figure 9. Perceptions of reducing fast food intake on menstrual symptoms.
Nearly half of the participants did not believe that reducing fast food would improve symptoms, reflecting skepticism or a
lack of awareness.
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Caffeine intake was generally low, with most consuming it
rarely or never, although occasional use remains common.
Awareness regarding the role of diet in menstrual health
was poor. Only 20.8% acknowledged a dietary link, 44.7%
denied it, and 34.5% were unsure (Figure 8). When asked if
reducing fast food intake could improve menstrual
symptoms, 45.6% responded “No” and 30.1% “Not sure,”
with only 24.3% agree (Figure 9). Attitudes toward fast
food and menstrual health reflected scepticism. Over half
(53.1%) did not believe that fast food worsened their
symptoms, whereas 29.2% were unsure (Figure 12). This
translated into limited behavioural change, with 52.7%
reporting no attempts to reduce fast food intake for
menstrual improvement, 20.8% reporting efforts, and
26.5% planning to reduce intake (Figure 13). Nutritional
supplementation was inconsistent; only 20.8% of the
participants used supplements regularly, 45.6% used
supplements occasionally, and 33.6% never used
supplements (Figure 11).
Figure 8. Awareness of the impact of diet on menstrual health.
Fewer than one quarter of the participants were fully aware of the role of diet in their menstrual health, highlighting a
significant knowledge gap.
Figure 9. Perceptions of reducing fast food intake on menstrual symptoms.
Nearly half of the participants did not believe that reducing fast food would improve symptoms, reflecting skepticism or a
lack of awareness.
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 119-131, 2025
www.ijzab.com 126
Figure 10. Meal-skipping behaviour during menstruation.
While 46.5% reported never skipping meals, over half occasionally or frequently skipped meals, suggesting that menstrual
health influences eating patterns.
Figure 11. Use of dietary supplements among college women.
Regular supplement use was reported by only 20.8% of the participants, whereas occasional supplement use was more
common, possibly leaving nutritional gaps unaddressed.
Figure 12. Perceived association between fast food consumption and worsening of menstrual symptoms.
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Figure 10. Meal-skipping behaviour during menstruation.
While 46.5% reported never skipping meals, over half occasionally or frequently skipped meals, suggesting that menstrual
health influences eating patterns.
Figure 11. Use of dietary supplements among college women.
Regular supplement use was reported by only 20.8% of the participants, whereas occasional supplement use was more
common, possibly leaving nutritional gaps unaddressed.
Figure 12. Perceived association between fast food consumption and worsening of menstrual symptoms.
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 119-131, 2025
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More than half of the respondents did not perceive a link, whereas nearly one-third remained uncertain, suggesting poor
dietary–symptom awareness.
Figure 13. Efforts to reduce fast food for improving menstrual health.
A majority (52.7%) had not attempted to reduce fast food,
whereas only one-fifth reported making dietary changes,
indicating a low behavioural response despite symptoms.
Despite gaps in awareness, there was moderate interest in
interventions. While only 30.1% expressed interest in
workshops, 42% desired personalized dietary advice, and
61.5% agreed that health education could improve their
menstrual health. The combined results indicate a
significant association between fast food consumption and
menstrual disturbances, in line with Adele et al. (2019),
Shaaban et al. (2014), and Verma and Mehta (2022). The
logistic regression findings underscore that frequent fast
food intake substantially increases the risk of irregular
cycles and severe PMS. In addition, lifestyle deficits such
as inadequate sleep and low physical activity further
compound menstrual difficulties. Taken together, these
findings emphasize that dietary patterns among young
women are not only a matter of nutrition but also a
determinant of reproductive health. Without corrective
interventions, such behaviours may predispose this
population to polycystic ovarian syndrome, infertility, and
metabolic disorders later in life. Public health initiatives
such as cafeteria reforms, menstrual health literacy
programs, and personalized nutritional counselling could
substantially reduce these risks, which is consistent with
the recommendations of Goyal et al. (2020).
Table 2. Demographic, dietary, lifestyle, and menstrual health profiles of college-aged women in Vizianagaram (N = 300).
Age 23-25 8.8%
17-19 46%
20-22 38%
26+ 11%
Feid of study Arts/humanities 13.7%
Sciences 42%
Commerce/business 35.8%
Other 12%
Marital status Single 34.5%
Married 31.4%
Divorced 25.7%
Prefer to say 8.4%
Do you live With family 23.9%
In hostel 36.3%
In a rented apartment 33.2%
Other 6.6%
How often do you eat fast food Daily 13.3%
2-4 times a week 35.8%
Once a week 33.2%
Rarely/never 17.7%
Preferred fast food type Freid food 19%
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More than half of the respondents did not perceive a link, whereas nearly one-third remained uncertain, suggesting poor
dietary–symptom awareness.
Figure 13. Efforts to reduce fast food for improving menstrual health.
A majority (52.7%) had not attempted to reduce fast food,
whereas only one-fifth reported making dietary changes,
indicating a low behavioural response despite symptoms.
Despite gaps in awareness, there was moderate interest in
interventions. While only 30.1% expressed interest in
workshops, 42% desired personalized dietary advice, and
61.5% agreed that health education could improve their
menstrual health. The combined results indicate a
significant association between fast food consumption and
menstrual disturbances, in line with Adele et al. (2019),
Shaaban et al. (2014), and Verma and Mehta (2022). The
logistic regression findings underscore that frequent fast
food intake substantially increases the risk of irregular
cycles and severe PMS. In addition, lifestyle deficits such
as inadequate sleep and low physical activity further
compound menstrual difficulties. Taken together, these
findings emphasize that dietary patterns among young
women are not only a matter of nutrition but also a
determinant of reproductive health. Without corrective
interventions, such behaviours may predispose this
population to polycystic ovarian syndrome, infertility, and
metabolic disorders later in life. Public health initiatives
such as cafeteria reforms, menstrual health literacy
programs, and personalized nutritional counselling could
substantially reduce these risks, which is consistent with
the recommendations of Goyal et al. (2020).
Table 2. Demographic, dietary, lifestyle, and menstrual health profiles of college-aged women in Vizianagaram (N = 300).
Age 23-25 8.8%
17-19 46%
20-22 38%
26+ 11%
Feid of study Arts/humanities 13.7%
Sciences 42%
Commerce/business 35.8%
Other 12%
Marital status Single 34.5%
Married 31.4%
Divorced 25.7%
Prefer to say 8.4%
Do you live With family 23.9%
In hostel 36.3%
In a rented apartment 33.2%
Other 6.6%
How often do you eat fast food Daily 13.3%
2-4 times a week 35.8%
Once a week 33.2%
Rarely/never 17.7%
Preferred fast food type Freid food 19%
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 119-131, 2025
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Burgers/pizzas 31.9%
Sugary snacks 36.7%
Carbonated drinks 12.4%
How many meals a day include fast food None 16.8%
1 meal 33.6%
2 meals 34.1%
3 or more 15.5%
Main reason for fast food consumption Taste preference 27%
Convenience 30.5%
Peer influence 32.7%
Lack of cooking food 9.7%
Do you read nutritional labels before eating fast food
consumption
Always 13.7%
Sometimes 39.4%
Rarely 35.8%
Never 11.1%
Menstrual cycle length <21 days 15%
21-35 days 40.7%
>35 days 30.1%
Irregular 14.2%
Menstrual flow Light 11.1%
Moderate 42%
Heavy 39.4%
Very heavy 7.5%
Duration of menstrual bleeding 1-2days 7.5%
3-5 days 40.3%
6-7days 42.9%
More than 7 days 9.3%
Do you experience menstrual cramps Never 15.9%
Occasionally 23.6%
Often 37.2%
Always 13.3%
Do you experience mood swings during menstruation Never 11.5%
Occasionally 36.7%
Often 38.1%
Always 13.7%
Do you experience bloating during do your period Never 13.7%
Occasionally 38.1%
Often 35.4%
Always 12.8%
Do you have irregular periods Never 18.1%
Occasionally 31%
Often 38.1%
Always 12.8%
Do you experience headaches during menstruation Never 14.6%
Occasionally 31.9%
Often 38.5%
Always 15%
Do you suffer from fatigue during menstruation Never 16.4%
Occasionally 35%
Often 33.2%
Always 15.5%
Do you skip college classes during menstruation Never 15.9%
Rarely 39.4%
Sometimes 33.6%
Frequently 11.1%
How often do you exercise Daily 12.4%
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Burgers/pizzas 31.9%
Sugary snacks 36.7%
Carbonated drinks 12.4%
How many meals a day include fast food None 16.8%
1 meal 33.6%
2 meals 34.1%
3 or more 15.5%
Main reason for fast food consumption Taste preference 27%
Convenience 30.5%
Peer influence 32.7%
Lack of cooking food 9.7%
Do you read nutritional labels before eating fast food
consumption
Always 13.7%
Sometimes 39.4%
Rarely 35.8%
Never 11.1%
Menstrual cycle length <21 days 15%
21-35 days 40.7%
>35 days 30.1%
Irregular 14.2%
Menstrual flow Light 11.1%
Moderate 42%
Heavy 39.4%
Very heavy 7.5%
Duration of menstrual bleeding 1-2days 7.5%
3-5 days 40.3%
6-7days 42.9%
More than 7 days 9.3%
Do you experience menstrual cramps Never 15.9%
Occasionally 23.6%
Often 37.2%
Always 13.3%
Do you experience mood swings during menstruation Never 11.5%
Occasionally 36.7%
Often 38.1%
Always 13.7%
Do you experience bloating during do your period Never 13.7%
Occasionally 38.1%
Often 35.4%
Always 12.8%
Do you have irregular periods Never 18.1%
Occasionally 31%
Often 38.1%
Always 12.8%
Do you experience headaches during menstruation Never 14.6%
Occasionally 31.9%
Often 38.5%
Always 15%
Do you suffer from fatigue during menstruation Never 16.4%
Occasionally 35%
Often 33.2%
Always 15.5%
Do you skip college classes during menstruation Never 15.9%
Rarely 39.4%
Sometimes 33.6%
Frequently 11.1%
How often do you exercise Daily 12.4%
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 119-131, 2025
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3-4 times/week 33.6%
Once a week 38.9%
Never 15%
Do you smoke Yes 18.1%
No 81.9%
Do you consume alcohol Yes 14.2%
No 85.8%
How many hours of sleep do you get per night <4 hours 9.3%
4-6 hours 27.9%
7-8 hours 45.6%
>8 hours 17.3%
Do you consume caffeine Daily 8.4%
Never 22.6%
Rarely 38.1%
Are you aware of the impact of diet on menstrual health Yes 20.8%
No 44.7%
Somewhat 34.5%
Do you believe fast food affects your menstrual cycle Yes 19.5%
No 46.5%
Not sure 34.1%
Have you noticed a change in your periods which increased
fast food intake
Yes 20.8%
No 49.1%
Not sure 30.1%
Do you think reducing fast food would improve your
menstrual symptoms
Yes 24.3%
No 45.6%
Not sure 30.1%
Do you prefer healthier food options when menstruating Yes 25.2%
No 49.1%
Some times 25.7%
Do you crave fast food during menstruation Yes 18.1%
No 51.8%
Some times 30.1%
Do you eat more sugary food during menstruation Yes 19%
No 51.3%
Sometimes 29.6%
Do you drink more carbonated drinks during menstruation Yes 18.1%
No 53.5%
Sometimes 28.3%
Do you skip meals during menstruation Yes 19.9%
No 46.5%
Sometimes 28.3%
Do you feel more hungry than usual during menstruation Yes 15.5%
No 53.1%
Sometimes 31.4%
Do you have a diagnosed menstrual disorder Yes 18.1%
No 56.2%
Not sure 25.7%
Are you currently on any medication for menstrual health Yes 33.6%
No 65.4%
None 1%
Do you take any supplements Yes, regular 20.8%
Occasionally 45.6%
Never 33.6%
Have you consulted a doctor for menstrual issues in the past
year
Yes 36.7%
No 62%
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3-4 times/week 33.6%
Once a week 38.9%
Never 15%
Do you smoke Yes 18.1%
No 81.9%
Do you consume alcohol Yes 14.2%
No 85.8%
How many hours of sleep do you get per night <4 hours 9.3%
4-6 hours 27.9%
7-8 hours 45.6%
>8 hours 17.3%
Do you consume caffeine Daily 8.4%
Never 22.6%
Rarely 38.1%
Are you aware of the impact of diet on menstrual health Yes 20.8%
No 44.7%
Somewhat 34.5%
Do you believe fast food affects your menstrual cycle Yes 19.5%
No 46.5%
Not sure 34.1%
Have you noticed a change in your periods which increased
fast food intake
Yes 20.8%
No 49.1%
Not sure 30.1%
Do you think reducing fast food would improve your
menstrual symptoms
Yes 24.3%
No 45.6%
Not sure 30.1%
Do you prefer healthier food options when menstruating Yes 25.2%
No 49.1%
Some times 25.7%
Do you crave fast food during menstruation Yes 18.1%
No 51.8%
Some times 30.1%
Do you eat more sugary food during menstruation Yes 19%
No 51.3%
Sometimes 29.6%
Do you drink more carbonated drinks during menstruation Yes 18.1%
No 53.5%
Sometimes 28.3%
Do you skip meals during menstruation Yes 19.9%
No 46.5%
Sometimes 28.3%
Do you feel more hungry than usual during menstruation Yes 15.5%
No 53.1%
Sometimes 31.4%
Do you have a diagnosed menstrual disorder Yes 18.1%
No 56.2%
Not sure 25.7%
Are you currently on any medication for menstrual health Yes 33.6%
No 65.4%
None 1%
Do you take any supplements Yes, regular 20.8%
Occasionally 45.6%
Never 33.6%
Have you consulted a doctor for menstrual issues in the past
year
Yes 36.7%
No 62%
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None 1%
Do you track your menstrual cycle Yes, with an app 15.9%
Yes, manually 49.6%
No 34.5%
How would you rate your overall diet Very healthy 14.2%
Somewhat healthy 41.2%
Unhealthy 34.5%
Very unhealthy 10.2%
How would you describe your fast food intake High 13.7%
Moderate 38.5%
Low 36.7%
None 11.1%
Has your fast food intake increased in the past year Yes 17.3%
No 53.1%
Not sure 29.6%
Do you associate fast food with worsening of any menstrual
symptoms
Yes 17.7%
No 53.1%
Not sure 29.2%
Have you tried to reduce fast food to improve menstrual health Yes 20.8%
No 52.7%
Planning to 26.5%
Do you feel empowered to make dietary better health Yes 21.2%
No 49.6%
Not sure 29.2%
Do your friends/family influence you’re eating habits Yes 29.6%
No 44.7%
Sometimes 25.7%
Would you be interested in attending a workshop on diet and
menstrual health
Yes 30.1%
No 47.3%
Maybe 22.6%
Would you like to receive personalized dietary advice for
menstrual health
Yes 42%
No 40.7%
May be 17.3%
Do you believe health education can improve menstrual
wellness
Strongly agree 18.6%
Agree 42.9%
Disagree 30.1%
Strongly disagree 8.4%
CONCLUSION
The present study demonstrated a clear association between
fast food consumption and menstrual health disturbances
among college-going women in Vizianagaram, Andhra
Pradesh. Compared with those who consumed fast food,
those who consumed fast food more frequently reported a
greater prevalence of irregular cycles, prolonged bleeding,
dysmenorrhea, mood fluctuations, fatigue, and academic
absenteeism. These outcomes are likely linked to the high
intake of saturated fats, sugars, and preservatives alongside
deficiencies in fibre, iron, and essential micronutrients that
are characteristic of fast-food diets. These findings are
consistent with national and international evidence,
reinforcing the critical role of nutrition in maintaining
reproductive health. Despite the strong association
observed, awareness levels among participants regarding
the impact of diet on menstrual health were notably limited.
A considerable proportion of the students did not recognize
the connection between their eating patterns and menstrual
symptoms, and more than half made no effort to reduce fast
food intake. This gap between awareness and action reflects
the influence of cultural stigma, limited menstrual health
literacy, and normalization of menstrual pain, all of which
hinder effective health-seeking behaviours. This study
emphasizes the urgent need for comprehensive
interventions that integrate nutritional education, menstrual
health awareness, and supportive campus environments.
Efforts such as curriculum integration, peer-led initiatives,
and access to healthier food options on college premises
could play a significant role in improving both dietary
behaviours and menstrual health outcomes. Moreover,
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None 1%
Do you track your menstrual cycle Yes, with an app 15.9%
Yes, manually 49.6%
No 34.5%
How would you rate your overall diet Very healthy 14.2%
Somewhat healthy 41.2%
Unhealthy 34.5%
Very unhealthy 10.2%
How would you describe your fast food intake High 13.7%
Moderate 38.5%
Low 36.7%
None 11.1%
Has your fast food intake increased in the past year Yes 17.3%
No 53.1%
Not sure 29.6%
Do you associate fast food with worsening of any menstrual
symptoms
Yes 17.7%
No 53.1%
Not sure 29.2%
Have you tried to reduce fast food to improve menstrual health Yes 20.8%
No 52.7%
Planning to 26.5%
Do you feel empowered to make dietary better health Yes 21.2%
No 49.6%
Not sure 29.2%
Do your friends/family influence you’re eating habits Yes 29.6%
No 44.7%
Sometimes 25.7%
Would you be interested in attending a workshop on diet and
menstrual health
Yes 30.1%
No 47.3%
Maybe 22.6%
Would you like to receive personalized dietary advice for
menstrual health
Yes 42%
No 40.7%
May be 17.3%
Do you believe health education can improve menstrual
wellness
Strongly agree 18.6%
Agree 42.9%
Disagree 30.1%
Strongly disagree 8.4%
CONCLUSION
The present study demonstrated a clear association between
fast food consumption and menstrual health disturbances
among college-going women in Vizianagaram, Andhra
Pradesh. Compared with those who consumed fast food,
those who consumed fast food more frequently reported a
greater prevalence of irregular cycles, prolonged bleeding,
dysmenorrhea, mood fluctuations, fatigue, and academic
absenteeism. These outcomes are likely linked to the high
intake of saturated fats, sugars, and preservatives alongside
deficiencies in fibre, iron, and essential micronutrients that
are characteristic of fast-food diets. These findings are
consistent with national and international evidence,
reinforcing the critical role of nutrition in maintaining
reproductive health. Despite the strong association
observed, awareness levels among participants regarding
the impact of diet on menstrual health were notably limited.
A considerable proportion of the students did not recognize
the connection between their eating patterns and menstrual
symptoms, and more than half made no effort to reduce fast
food intake. This gap between awareness and action reflects
the influence of cultural stigma, limited menstrual health
literacy, and normalization of menstrual pain, all of which
hinder effective health-seeking behaviours. This study
emphasizes the urgent need for comprehensive
interventions that integrate nutritional education, menstrual
health awareness, and supportive campus environments.
Efforts such as curriculum integration, peer-led initiatives,
and access to healthier food options on college premises
could play a significant role in improving both dietary
behaviours and menstrual health outcomes. Moreover,
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 119-131, 2025
www.ijzab.com 131
strengthening student health services with regular
screenings and counselling would provide young women
with the support necessary to adopt preventive lifestyle
practices. Overall, this study highlights that addressing
dietary patterns during the transitional college years is not
only vital for immediate well-being but also crucial for
safeguarding long-term reproductive health and reducing
the risk of chronic conditions such as PCOS and infertility.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research team sincerely acknowledges the support
provided by the Department of Zoology at Maharaja’s
Autonomous College, Vizianagaram. We are deeply
grateful to the students who participated in the survey.
Their candid responses and willingness to share personal
experiences made it possible to examine the lived realities
of young women managing menstrual irregularities. Special
thanks are also extended to the educational institutions in
Vizianagaram that facilitated data collection and
encouraged student-centred research initiatives. Their
collaboration reflects a strong commitment to fostering
undergraduate scholarships and inquiry
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors declare no conflict of interest
ETHICS APPROVAL
Not applicable
FUNDING
This study received no specific funding from public,
commercial, or not-for-profit funding agencies.
AI TOOL DECLARATION
The authors declares that no AI and related tools are used to
write the scientific content of this manuscript.
DATA AVAILABILITY
Data will be available on request
REFERENCES
Adele, A. A., et al. (2019). Junk food consumption and its
association with menstrual disorders among adolescent
girls. International Journal of Reproduction,
Contraception, Obstetrics and Gynecology, 8(2), 651–
656.
Ahmed, A. S., & Parveen, R. (2021). Dietary patterns and
their impact on menstrual cycle regularity in young
females. Nutrition and Women's Health Journal, 3(1),
35–42.
Alsulami, S. A. (2020). Menstrual irregularities and
unhealthy eating patterns among young women. Journal
of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 9(2), 874–879.
Bajalan, Z., et al. (2019). Effects of nutrition and lifestyle
on menstrual health: A systematic review. Obstetrics &
Gynecology International, 2019, Article ID 7138975.
Goyal, M., et al. (2020). Impact of diet and lifestyle on
premenstrual syndrome: A meta-analysis. Journal of Mid-
Life Health, 11(3), 187–194.
Gupta, N., et al. (2021). Correlation of fast food intake with
dysmenorrhea. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic
Research, 15(2), 8–12.
Jain, A., et al. (2020). Lifestyle and menstruation: A cross-
sectional study among college girls. International Journal
of Reproductive Contraception Obstetrics and
Gynecology, 9(4), 1500–1505.
Jahanfar, S., & Lye, M. S. (2013). Lifestyle and menstrual
disorders: A review. International Journal of Women's
Health, 5, 771–780.
Kulkarni, A., et al. (2018). Fast food consumption and its
impact on adolescent health: A systematic review.
Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, 12(5),
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Najafi, F., et al. (2018). Relationships between dietary
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Pattanayak, R., & Mishra, A. (2021). Fast food
consumption and its impact on menstruation among
college girls. International Journal of Research and
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Shaaban, O. M., et al. (2014). Lifestyle, dietary habits and
menstrual health among young women in Egypt. Journal
of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 27(6), 332–339.
Verma, S., & Mehta, A. (2022). The impact of processed
food on hormonal health in adolescent females.
International Journal of Endocrinology, 2022.
www.ijzab.com 131
strengthening student health services with regular
screenings and counselling would provide young women
with the support necessary to adopt preventive lifestyle
practices. Overall, this study highlights that addressing
dietary patterns during the transitional college years is not
only vital for immediate well-being but also crucial for
safeguarding long-term reproductive health and reducing
the risk of chronic conditions such as PCOS and infertility.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research team sincerely acknowledges the support
provided by the Department of Zoology at Maharaja’s
Autonomous College, Vizianagaram. We are deeply
grateful to the students who participated in the survey.
Their candid responses and willingness to share personal
experiences made it possible to examine the lived realities
of young women managing menstrual irregularities. Special
thanks are also extended to the educational institutions in
Vizianagaram that facilitated data collection and
encouraged student-centred research initiatives. Their
collaboration reflects a strong commitment to fostering
undergraduate scholarships and inquiry
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors declare no conflict of interest
ETHICS APPROVAL
Not applicable
FUNDING
This study received no specific funding from public,
commercial, or not-for-profit funding agencies.
AI TOOL DECLARATION
The authors declares that no AI and related tools are used to
write the scientific content of this manuscript.
DATA AVAILABILITY
Data will be available on request
REFERENCES
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