*Corresponding Author: Gopal Anapana, Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology, Maharajah’s
College Autonomous, Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh, India., Email: [email protected]. 109
International Journal of Zoology and Applied Biosciences ISSN: 2455-9571
Volume 10, Issue 5, pp: 109-118, 2025 http://www.ijzab.com
https://doi.org/10.55126/ijzab.2025.v10.i05.014
Research Article
MENSTRUAL HYGIENE AWARENESS, PRACTICES, AND CULTURAL
INFLUENCES AMONG COLLEGE-GOING WOMEN IN VIZIANAGARAM,
ANDHRA PRADESH: A CROSS-SECTIONAL SURVEY
*Gopal Anapana, D.S. Siva Ganesh, Valireddy Mahalakshmi, Majji Vydehi, Korada
Suryanarayana, Rongali Sravya and Voleti Sravanthi
Department of Zoology, Maharajah’s College Autonomous, Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Article History: Received 29th July 2025; Accepted 9th September 2025; Published 30th September 2025
ABSTRACT
Menstrual hygiene is a vital component of women's health and well-being, yet it remains shrouded in cultural taboos,
misinformation, and inadequate educational outreach, especially in developing countries such as India. This study
investigated menstrual hygiene awareness, practices, and cultural factors influencing college-going women in
Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh. A descriptive cross-sectional survey was conducted among undergraduate and
postgraduate female students via a structured questionnaire. Data on menstrual knowledge, hygiene behaviours, cultural
taboos, and health experiences were collected. Descriptive statistics and thematic analysis were used to interpret the results.
This study revealed that while most students were aware of menstruation as a biological function, gaps remained in their
understanding of proper hygiene practices, safe product disposal, and associated health risks. Over 70% of the participants
reported experiencing cultural restrictions during menstruation, and a significant proportion faced embarrassment,
discomfort, or health issues due to poor hygiene. Sources of information were primarily informal, with mothers and peers
being the most common. The level of formal menstrual education was insufficient, particularly in the rural or lower income
groups. Many participants expressed a need for institutional support, better facilities, and awareness campaigns. Despite
increased educational opportunities, college women continue to face menstrual stigma and health risks due to inadequate
awareness and persistent cultural taboos. Strengthening menstrual education, improving access to sanitary products, and
fostering open conversations are essential steps toward ensuring menstrual dignity and public health equity for young
women.
Keywords: Menstrual hygiene, College students, Menstrual awareness, Cultural taboos, Reproductive health.
INTRODUCTION
Menstruation is a vital and recurring physiological process
in the lives of women of reproductive age. Despite its
biological normalcy, it continues to be surrounded by
misinformation, stigma, and cultural silence, particularly in
many developing countries. For college-going women,
proper menstrual hygiene is essential not only for physical
health but also for emotional well-being and academic
success. However, awareness, access to hygiene products,
and supportive facilities often remain inadequate due to
persistent taboos, poor infrastructure, and limited education
(Garg & Anand, 2015; Benshaul-Tolonen et al., 2022). In
India, menstruation continues to be shaped by cultural
norms that portray it as impure or shameful. Even among
educated college students, restrictions such as avoiding
temples, cooking, or physical contact during menstruation
remain common (Rajagopal & Mathur, 2017). A
nationwide survey revealed that more than 80% of Indian
women experience restrictions during their menstrual cycle,
highlighting the persistence of traditional beliefs in modern
settings (Sulabh International, 2023). Such cultural
attitudes also contribute to the use of unhygienic practices.
For example, despite being aware of health risks, many
women continue to use cloth in place of sanitary pads, as
reported in urban slum communities (Sinha & Paul, 2018).
The absence of open communication about menstruation
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 109-118, 2025
www.ijzab.com 110
contributes to embarrassment, anxiety, and widespread
misinformation. This silence often begins at home and is
perpetuated in schools and colleges, where menstrual health
education is minimal or absent (Sinha & Paul, 2018). As a
result, young women frequently rely on mothers, relatives,
or peers, who may themselves hold incomplete or outdated
knowledge (Kumari & Kumar, 2020). Research also
indicates that parental education and family support
strongly influence menstrual hygiene behaviours, whereas a
lack of accurate guidance reinforces secrecy and stigma
(Kansal et al., 2016; Kalyan et al., 2021). Poor menstrual
hygiene practices can have both physical and psychological
consequences. Health risks include reproductive tract
infections (RTIs), urinary tract infections (UTIs), rashes,
and skin irritations, particularly when sanitary products are
changed infrequently or disposed of improperly (Van Eijk
et al., 2016; Torondel et al., 2018). In addition to these
physical outcomes, psychological impacts such as stress,
shame, and reduced concentration in academic settings
have also been reported (George, 2015). A lack of proper
sanitation facilities further compounds these problems.
Many young women are unable to manage menstruation
with dignity in public institutions, as clean toilets, disposal
facilities, and affordable sanitary products remain
inadequate. While government programs such as the
Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK) aim to
improve menstrual health, their implementation has often
been inconsistent (Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
2015).
Although menstrual health research in India has grown,
adolescent girls have received the most attention, whereas
college-going women remain comparatively
underrepresented. Their experiences differ significantly
from those of adolescents because of greater autonomy,
exposure to diverse environments, and increased academic
responsibilities (Sinha & Paul, 2018). However, despite
access to higher education, they continue to face
embarrassment, limited access to hygienic products, and a
lack of confidence in managing their menstrual health
effectively (Chandra-Mouli et al., 2017; Van Eijk et al.,
2016). The persistence of such challenges even in urban
and semiurban contexts suggests that higher education
alone does not eliminate menstrual stigma. Menstruation,
although natural, remains culturally sensitive in South Asia,
where it is often associated with impurity and subject to
restrictions on daily activities. The contradiction between
increased exposure to modern education and the persistence
of traditional restrictions makes college demographics
particularly important to study. Institutions in higher
education play a crucial role in shaping attitudes, providing
resources, and fostering health-promoting environments.
However, unless menstrual health is actively included in
academic discourse, policy, and institutional practice, many
students will continue to suffer in silence (Chandra-Mouli
et al., 2017).
In this context, the present study investigates menstrual
hygiene awareness, practices, and cultural influences
among college-going women in Vizianagaram, a semiurban
district of Andhra Pradesh. This setting is particularly
relevant, as it represents a space where modern education
coexists with traditional practices. By focusing on this
underrepresented group, this study seeks to provide
nuanced, evidence-based insights into the barriers faced by
college women and to identify potential interventions that
can promote menstrual dignity and gender equity in higher
education.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Research Design
This study adopted a descriptive cross-sectional research
design to evaluate awareness, hygiene practices, and
cultural influences related to menstrual health among
college-going women in Vizianagaram. A quantitative
approach was employed to collect and analyse data at a
single point in time, enabling the identification of
prevailing behaviours, attitudes, and challenges associated
with menstruation. The primary data source was a
structured questionnaire distributed to a randomly selected
group of female students from various academic disciplines
and colleges in the district. The tool comprises both closed-
and open-ended questions addressing multiple dimensions,
including knowledge, hygiene practices, cultural taboos,
and health concerns during menstruation. The quantitative
design offered a practical and efficient means to assess the
current state of menstrual hygiene management (MHM)
and to inform future policy recommendations and health
education strategies in academic institutions.
Sample Selection and Population
The target population consisted of female undergraduate
and postgraduate students enrolled in different colleges
across Vizianagaram. To ensure a representative and
diverse sample, a simple random sampling technique was
used. This approach captured students from various
socioeconomic backgrounds, rural and urban settings, and
different cultural and religious communities. Sample size:
423, age range: 18-25 years
Data collection tools
The primary instrument for data collection was a structured,
pretested questionnaire designed to obtain both quantitative
data and limited qualitative insights through optional open-
ended questions. The questionnaire consisted of the
following five sections: demographic details, age, academic
year, residence, and socioeconomic status. Menstrual
Awareness: Understanding menstruation, sources of
menstrual knowledge. Hygiene practices: Type of
menstrual products used, frequency of change, methods of
disposal, and access to facilities cultural beliefs: Traditional
restrictions, family practices, taboos. Health implications:
Physical discomfort, infections, absenteeism, and emotional
or psychological issues. The questionnaire was distributed
physically or digitally, depending on student preference and
institutional access, with clear instructions and optional
anonymity to encourage honest responses.
www.ijzab.com 110
contributes to embarrassment, anxiety, and widespread
misinformation. This silence often begins at home and is
perpetuated in schools and colleges, where menstrual health
education is minimal or absent (Sinha & Paul, 2018). As a
result, young women frequently rely on mothers, relatives,
or peers, who may themselves hold incomplete or outdated
knowledge (Kumari & Kumar, 2020). Research also
indicates that parental education and family support
strongly influence menstrual hygiene behaviours, whereas a
lack of accurate guidance reinforces secrecy and stigma
(Kansal et al., 2016; Kalyan et al., 2021). Poor menstrual
hygiene practices can have both physical and psychological
consequences. Health risks include reproductive tract
infections (RTIs), urinary tract infections (UTIs), rashes,
and skin irritations, particularly when sanitary products are
changed infrequently or disposed of improperly (Van Eijk
et al., 2016; Torondel et al., 2018). In addition to these
physical outcomes, psychological impacts such as stress,
shame, and reduced concentration in academic settings
have also been reported (George, 2015). A lack of proper
sanitation facilities further compounds these problems.
Many young women are unable to manage menstruation
with dignity in public institutions, as clean toilets, disposal
facilities, and affordable sanitary products remain
inadequate. While government programs such as the
Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK) aim to
improve menstrual health, their implementation has often
been inconsistent (Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
2015).
Although menstrual health research in India has grown,
adolescent girls have received the most attention, whereas
college-going women remain comparatively
underrepresented. Their experiences differ significantly
from those of adolescents because of greater autonomy,
exposure to diverse environments, and increased academic
responsibilities (Sinha & Paul, 2018). However, despite
access to higher education, they continue to face
embarrassment, limited access to hygienic products, and a
lack of confidence in managing their menstrual health
effectively (Chandra-Mouli et al., 2017; Van Eijk et al.,
2016). The persistence of such challenges even in urban
and semiurban contexts suggests that higher education
alone does not eliminate menstrual stigma. Menstruation,
although natural, remains culturally sensitive in South Asia,
where it is often associated with impurity and subject to
restrictions on daily activities. The contradiction between
increased exposure to modern education and the persistence
of traditional restrictions makes college demographics
particularly important to study. Institutions in higher
education play a crucial role in shaping attitudes, providing
resources, and fostering health-promoting environments.
However, unless menstrual health is actively included in
academic discourse, policy, and institutional practice, many
students will continue to suffer in silence (Chandra-Mouli
et al., 2017).
In this context, the present study investigates menstrual
hygiene awareness, practices, and cultural influences
among college-going women in Vizianagaram, a semiurban
district of Andhra Pradesh. This setting is particularly
relevant, as it represents a space where modern education
coexists with traditional practices. By focusing on this
underrepresented group, this study seeks to provide
nuanced, evidence-based insights into the barriers faced by
college women and to identify potential interventions that
can promote menstrual dignity and gender equity in higher
education.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Research Design
This study adopted a descriptive cross-sectional research
design to evaluate awareness, hygiene practices, and
cultural influences related to menstrual health among
college-going women in Vizianagaram. A quantitative
approach was employed to collect and analyse data at a
single point in time, enabling the identification of
prevailing behaviours, attitudes, and challenges associated
with menstruation. The primary data source was a
structured questionnaire distributed to a randomly selected
group of female students from various academic disciplines
and colleges in the district. The tool comprises both closed-
and open-ended questions addressing multiple dimensions,
including knowledge, hygiene practices, cultural taboos,
and health concerns during menstruation. The quantitative
design offered a practical and efficient means to assess the
current state of menstrual hygiene management (MHM)
and to inform future policy recommendations and health
education strategies in academic institutions.
Sample Selection and Population
The target population consisted of female undergraduate
and postgraduate students enrolled in different colleges
across Vizianagaram. To ensure a representative and
diverse sample, a simple random sampling technique was
used. This approach captured students from various
socioeconomic backgrounds, rural and urban settings, and
different cultural and religious communities. Sample size:
423, age range: 18-25 years
Data collection tools
The primary instrument for data collection was a structured,
pretested questionnaire designed to obtain both quantitative
data and limited qualitative insights through optional open-
ended questions. The questionnaire consisted of the
following five sections: demographic details, age, academic
year, residence, and socioeconomic status. Menstrual
Awareness: Understanding menstruation, sources of
menstrual knowledge. Hygiene practices: Type of
menstrual products used, frequency of change, methods of
disposal, and access to facilities cultural beliefs: Traditional
restrictions, family practices, taboos. Health implications:
Physical discomfort, infections, absenteeism, and emotional
or psychological issues. The questionnaire was distributed
physically or digitally, depending on student preference and
institutional access, with clear instructions and optional
anonymity to encourage honest responses.
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 109-118, 2025
www.ijzab.com 111
Data analysis methods
The collected data were compiled and entered into
Microsoft Excel and further analysed via descriptive
statistical techniques. Data cleaning and coding were
performed prior to analysis to ensure accuracy. Frequency
distributions and percentages for demographic and
categorical variables. Cross tabulations to explore
relationships between key variables (e.g., awareness vs.
hygiene practices). Visualization of findings via bar charts,
pie charts, and tables for clarity. Qualitative data (from
open-ended responses) were analysed via thematic analysis
to extract common patterns and insights into cultural
beliefs, stigma, and personal experiences. This mixed
analysis approach provided both numeric trends and
narrative depth, enhancing the understanding of menstrual
hygiene management in the student population.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 summarizes the awareness and knowledge levels of
college-going women in Vizianagaram. The majority of
participants had heard about menstruation prior to
menarche, mostly from mothers and peers, although the
depth of information was often limited. As shown in Figure
1, only approximately two-thirds of the respondents
demonstrated adequate awareness of hygienic practices,
whereas the remaining respondents relied on partial or
inaccurate knowledge. These findings are consistent with
earlier reports that mothers are the primary source of
menstrual information but often pass on culturally
influenced beliefs rather than scientific knowledge (Kumari
& Kumar, 2020). Knowledge about infection risks
associated with poor menstrual hygiene was considerably
lower. Figure 2 shows that fewer than half of the
participants recognized the link between irregular pad
changes and infections such as RTIs and UTIs. Similar
results were reported in studies from Delhi and
Coimbatore, which highlighted the limited understanding
of infection pathways despite awareness of sanitary napkins
(Sinha & Paul, 2018; Van Eijk et al., 2016). The lack of
comprehensive education programs in schools and colleges
contributes to this gap, reinforcing the dependence on
informal sources.
Table 1. Awareness and knowledge of menstrual hygiene among college-going women in Vizianagaram.
Variable Most Common Response Percentage
Age 18 years 54.6%
Living Arrangement Hostel 51.8%
Field of Study Science 51.3%
Aware of Menstrual Hygiene Yes 59.6%
First Source of Information Mother 59.6%
Product Used Sanitary Pads 60.5%
Disposal Method Wrap and bin 66.9%
Restrictions at Home Yes 72.1%
Missed College due to Periods Yes 67.8%
Menstrual Health Affects Academics Yes 68.8%
Willing to Attend Workshop Yes 70.7%
Support Free Product Distribution Yes 70.4%
Figure 1. Awareness of Menstrual Hygiene.
www.ijzab.com 111
Data analysis methods
The collected data were compiled and entered into
Microsoft Excel and further analysed via descriptive
statistical techniques. Data cleaning and coding were
performed prior to analysis to ensure accuracy. Frequency
distributions and percentages for demographic and
categorical variables. Cross tabulations to explore
relationships between key variables (e.g., awareness vs.
hygiene practices). Visualization of findings via bar charts,
pie charts, and tables for clarity. Qualitative data (from
open-ended responses) were analysed via thematic analysis
to extract common patterns and insights into cultural
beliefs, stigma, and personal experiences. This mixed
analysis approach provided both numeric trends and
narrative depth, enhancing the understanding of menstrual
hygiene management in the student population.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 summarizes the awareness and knowledge levels of
college-going women in Vizianagaram. The majority of
participants had heard about menstruation prior to
menarche, mostly from mothers and peers, although the
depth of information was often limited. As shown in Figure
1, only approximately two-thirds of the respondents
demonstrated adequate awareness of hygienic practices,
whereas the remaining respondents relied on partial or
inaccurate knowledge. These findings are consistent with
earlier reports that mothers are the primary source of
menstrual information but often pass on culturally
influenced beliefs rather than scientific knowledge (Kumari
& Kumar, 2020). Knowledge about infection risks
associated with poor menstrual hygiene was considerably
lower. Figure 2 shows that fewer than half of the
participants recognized the link between irregular pad
changes and infections such as RTIs and UTIs. Similar
results were reported in studies from Delhi and
Coimbatore, which highlighted the limited understanding
of infection pathways despite awareness of sanitary napkins
(Sinha & Paul, 2018; Van Eijk et al., 2016). The lack of
comprehensive education programs in schools and colleges
contributes to this gap, reinforcing the dependence on
informal sources.
Table 1. Awareness and knowledge of menstrual hygiene among college-going women in Vizianagaram.
Variable Most Common Response Percentage
Age 18 years 54.6%
Living Arrangement Hostel 51.8%
Field of Study Science 51.3%
Aware of Menstrual Hygiene Yes 59.6%
First Source of Information Mother 59.6%
Product Used Sanitary Pads 60.5%
Disposal Method Wrap and bin 66.9%
Restrictions at Home Yes 72.1%
Missed College due to Periods Yes 67.8%
Menstrual Health Affects Academics Yes 68.8%
Willing to Attend Workshop Yes 70.7%
Support Free Product Distribution Yes 70.4%
Figure 1. Awareness of Menstrual Hygiene.
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 109-118, 2025
www.ijzab.com 112
Nearly 40.4% of the respondents demonstrated either limited or no awareness of menstrual hygiene, underscoring the
urgent need for comprehensive menstrual health education across academic streams.
Figure 2. Awareness of Health Risks Associated with Poor Menstrual Hygiene.
Although more than half of the participants recognized
health risks, a significant portion remained unaware or
uncertain, making them vulnerable to infections such as
UTIs, RTIs, and bacterial vaginosis. Figure 3 illustrates the
sources of menstrual information and the extent of family
communication. While mothers and elder sisters were the
predominant sources, open discussion within families
remained limited. Only a minority of students reported
comfortable dialogue with fathers or brothers, reflecting the
persistence of menstrual silence within households. This
mirrors findings from George (2015), who noted that
secrecy around menstruation fosters stigma and poor
hygiene management. The continuation of such silence into
higher education indicates that cultural barriers remain
strong, even among educated families.
Figure 3. Family Communication About Menstruation.
Nearly half of the respondents reported feeling comfortable
discussing menstruation with their families, whereas the
remaining respondents expressed limited or no openness.
This indicates that although conversations are beginning to
normalize, stigma and discomfort persist. Promoting open
dialogue within households is essential to dismantle taboos
and ensure that young women are supported in managing
their menstrual health. Cultural restrictions were widely
www.ijzab.com 112
Nearly 40.4% of the respondents demonstrated either limited or no awareness of menstrual hygiene, underscoring the
urgent need for comprehensive menstrual health education across academic streams.
Figure 2. Awareness of Health Risks Associated with Poor Menstrual Hygiene.
Although more than half of the participants recognized
health risks, a significant portion remained unaware or
uncertain, making them vulnerable to infections such as
UTIs, RTIs, and bacterial vaginosis. Figure 3 illustrates the
sources of menstrual information and the extent of family
communication. While mothers and elder sisters were the
predominant sources, open discussion within families
remained limited. Only a minority of students reported
comfortable dialogue with fathers or brothers, reflecting the
persistence of menstrual silence within households. This
mirrors findings from George (2015), who noted that
secrecy around menstruation fosters stigma and poor
hygiene management. The continuation of such silence into
higher education indicates that cultural barriers remain
strong, even among educated families.
Figure 3. Family Communication About Menstruation.
Nearly half of the respondents reported feeling comfortable
discussing menstruation with their families, whereas the
remaining respondents expressed limited or no openness.
This indicates that although conversations are beginning to
normalize, stigma and discomfort persist. Promoting open
dialogue within households is essential to dismantle taboos
and ensure that young women are supported in managing
their menstrual health. Cultural restrictions were widely
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 109-118, 2025
www.ijzab.com 113
observed among the participants. As presented in Figure 4,
restrictions included avoiding temples, cooking, and social
gatherings during menstruation. Over 70% of respondents
reported at least one restriction, in line with national
surveys that suggest that more than 80% of Indian women
experience some form of restriction during their cycles
(Sulabh International, 2023). These practices reflect deeply
ingrained cultural perceptions of impurity and continue to
limit social participation among young women. Although
some respondents reported relaxation of restrictions in
urbanized settings, the persistence of such practices in
semiurban Vizianagaram suggests that education alone is
insufficient to overcome cultural stigma. Rajagopal and
Mathur (2017) similarly reported that even among educated
urban families, restrictions were enforced due to traditional
beliefs. The findings of this study reinforce the view that
both cultural and institutional interventions are needed to
dismantle menstrual taboos.
Figure 4. Cultural Restrictions Experienced During Menstruation.
Entry into religious places (50.1%) was the most frequently
reported restriction, followed by limitations on cooking
(22.5%) and attending social events (21.5%). A smaller
proportion (5.9%) experienced restrictions on physical
contact, reflecting the persistence of cultural taboos.
Menstrual health problems were reported by a large
proportion of participants. As depicted in Figure 5,
common complaints included abdominal cramps, excessive
bleeding, rashes, and irregular cycles. Notably, more than
one-third of the respondents experienced skin irritation or
rashes, which are often linked to prolonged use of
absorbents or unhygienic disposal practices. These
outcomes align with earlier research linking poor menstrual
management to RTIs, UTIs, and dermatological issues
(Torondel et al., 2018). Psychological impacts were also
notable. Many participants reported stress, embarrassment,
and absenteeism during menstruation, echoing the findings
of George (2015), who emphasized the role of stigma in
emotional distress and academic disruption. Although
college-going women are presumed to be more informed
than adolescents are, the persistence of these challenges
suggests that higher education environments are not
adequately supportive. The lack of clean toilets, private,
and affordable sanitary products in public institutions
further exacerbates both physical and psychological
difficulties.
Figure 5. Health problems reported during menstruation.
www.ijzab.com 113
observed among the participants. As presented in Figure 4,
restrictions included avoiding temples, cooking, and social
gatherings during menstruation. Over 70% of respondents
reported at least one restriction, in line with national
surveys that suggest that more than 80% of Indian women
experience some form of restriction during their cycles
(Sulabh International, 2023). These practices reflect deeply
ingrained cultural perceptions of impurity and continue to
limit social participation among young women. Although
some respondents reported relaxation of restrictions in
urbanized settings, the persistence of such practices in
semiurban Vizianagaram suggests that education alone is
insufficient to overcome cultural stigma. Rajagopal and
Mathur (2017) similarly reported that even among educated
urban families, restrictions were enforced due to traditional
beliefs. The findings of this study reinforce the view that
both cultural and institutional interventions are needed to
dismantle menstrual taboos.
Figure 4. Cultural Restrictions Experienced During Menstruation.
Entry into religious places (50.1%) was the most frequently
reported restriction, followed by limitations on cooking
(22.5%) and attending social events (21.5%). A smaller
proportion (5.9%) experienced restrictions on physical
contact, reflecting the persistence of cultural taboos.
Menstrual health problems were reported by a large
proportion of participants. As depicted in Figure 5,
common complaints included abdominal cramps, excessive
bleeding, rashes, and irregular cycles. Notably, more than
one-third of the respondents experienced skin irritation or
rashes, which are often linked to prolonged use of
absorbents or unhygienic disposal practices. These
outcomes align with earlier research linking poor menstrual
management to RTIs, UTIs, and dermatological issues
(Torondel et al., 2018). Psychological impacts were also
notable. Many participants reported stress, embarrassment,
and absenteeism during menstruation, echoing the findings
of George (2015), who emphasized the role of stigma in
emotional distress and academic disruption. Although
college-going women are presumed to be more informed
than adolescents are, the persistence of these challenges
suggests that higher education environments are not
adequately supportive. The lack of clean toilets, private,
and affordable sanitary products in public institutions
further exacerbates both physical and psychological
difficulties.
Figure 5. Health problems reported during menstruation.
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 109-118, 2025
www.ijzab.com 114
A majority of the respondents (71.2%) reported rashes,
irritation, or infection, indicating the role of prolonged pad
use, poor-quality products, and inadequate hygiene
education in addressing menstrual health challenges. The
results of this study show that while awareness of
menstruation among college-aged women has improved
compared with that among earlier generations, critical gaps
remain in terms of infection-related knowledge, hygienic
practices, and cultural acceptance. These findings resonate
with those of Sinha & Paul (2018) and Chandra-Mouli et
al. (2017), who reported that higher education does not
automatically translate into improved menstrual health
outcomes. Government programs such as the Rashtriya
Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK) and the inclusion of
menstrual health in the National Education Policy (Ministry
of Education, 2020) indicate progress at the policy level.
However, inconsistent implementation and lack of
institutional prioritization limit their effectiveness. Colleges
represent a crucial space where both knowledge and
attitudes can be reshaped. Interventions such as structured
awareness sessions, the availability of affordable products,
and the establishment of supportive facilities are essential
for creating a menstrual-friendly academic environment.
This study highlights the intersection of knowledge,
cultural norms, and institutional limitations in shaping
menstrual hygiene practices among college-going women
in Vizianagaram. The findings show that while awareness
has increased, misconceptions persist, restrictions remain
widespread, and health problems are common. Importantly,
the contradiction between greater educational exposure and
the persistence of traditional restrictions underscores the
need for targeted, context-specific interventions. By
documenting the lived experiences of college women in a
semiurban setting, this study contributes to filling a critical
research gap. The evidence underscores the importance of
integrating menstrual health into higher education
discourse, promoting gender equity, and ensuring that
young women are empowered to manage menstruation with
dignity.
Table 2. Reported menstrual hygiene practices and product usage among participants.
Question Options Percentage
What is your age? 18 years 54.6%
19 years 30.5%
Above 20 years 14.9%
Living arrangement? Hostel 51.8%
Family 42.1%
Rented/shared accommodation 6.2%
Field of study? Arts 41.4%
Science 51.3%
Commerce 7.3%
Do you know what is meant by menstrual hygiene? Yes 59.6%
No 31.2%
Some what 9.2%
Have you received any formal education about menstrual
hygiene?
Yes 57%
No 34.3%
Some what 8.7%
Where did you first learn about menstruation? Family 61.9%
School/friends 31.4%
Social media/internet 6.6%
Do you know how often menstrual absorbents should be
changed?
2-3 times 54.1%
4 or more times 35%
Only when full 10.9%
Are you aware of reusable menstrual hygiene products? Menstrual cups 51.8%
Cloth pads 39.2%
No, I do not know 9%
Do you believe poor menstrual hygiene can lead to
infections?
Yes 55.3%
No 31.4%
Sometimes 13.2%
Are you aware of any government schemes promoting
menstrual hygiene?
Yes 58.6%
No 31.7%
Some what 9.7%
Do you think menstrual hygiene is a public health issue? Yes 9.2%
No 31.9%
I do not know 58.9%
www.ijzab.com 114
A majority of the respondents (71.2%) reported rashes,
irritation, or infection, indicating the role of prolonged pad
use, poor-quality products, and inadequate hygiene
education in addressing menstrual health challenges. The
results of this study show that while awareness of
menstruation among college-aged women has improved
compared with that among earlier generations, critical gaps
remain in terms of infection-related knowledge, hygienic
practices, and cultural acceptance. These findings resonate
with those of Sinha & Paul (2018) and Chandra-Mouli et
al. (2017), who reported that higher education does not
automatically translate into improved menstrual health
outcomes. Government programs such as the Rashtriya
Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK) and the inclusion of
menstrual health in the National Education Policy (Ministry
of Education, 2020) indicate progress at the policy level.
However, inconsistent implementation and lack of
institutional prioritization limit their effectiveness. Colleges
represent a crucial space where both knowledge and
attitudes can be reshaped. Interventions such as structured
awareness sessions, the availability of affordable products,
and the establishment of supportive facilities are essential
for creating a menstrual-friendly academic environment.
This study highlights the intersection of knowledge,
cultural norms, and institutional limitations in shaping
menstrual hygiene practices among college-going women
in Vizianagaram. The findings show that while awareness
has increased, misconceptions persist, restrictions remain
widespread, and health problems are common. Importantly,
the contradiction between greater educational exposure and
the persistence of traditional restrictions underscores the
need for targeted, context-specific interventions. By
documenting the lived experiences of college women in a
semiurban setting, this study contributes to filling a critical
research gap. The evidence underscores the importance of
integrating menstrual health into higher education
discourse, promoting gender equity, and ensuring that
young women are empowered to manage menstruation with
dignity.
Table 2. Reported menstrual hygiene practices and product usage among participants.
Question Options Percentage
What is your age? 18 years 54.6%
19 years 30.5%
Above 20 years 14.9%
Living arrangement? Hostel 51.8%
Family 42.1%
Rented/shared accommodation 6.2%
Field of study? Arts 41.4%
Science 51.3%
Commerce 7.3%
Do you know what is meant by menstrual hygiene? Yes 59.6%
No 31.2%
Some what 9.2%
Have you received any formal education about menstrual
hygiene?
Yes 57%
No 34.3%
Some what 8.7%
Where did you first learn about menstruation? Family 61.9%
School/friends 31.4%
Social media/internet 6.6%
Do you know how often menstrual absorbents should be
changed?
2-3 times 54.1%
4 or more times 35%
Only when full 10.9%
Are you aware of reusable menstrual hygiene products? Menstrual cups 51.8%
Cloth pads 39.2%
No, I do not know 9%
Do you believe poor menstrual hygiene can lead to
infections?
Yes 55.3%
No 31.4%
Sometimes 13.2%
Are you aware of any government schemes promoting
menstrual hygiene?
Yes 58.6%
No 31.7%
Some what 9.7%
Do you think menstrual hygiene is a public health issue? Yes 9.2%
No 31.9%
I do not know 58.9%
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 109-118, 2025
www.ijzab.com 115
How often do you discuss about menstruation openly with
your family?
Often 46.6%
Sometimes 41.1%
Rarely 12.3%
Do you think more awareness programmes are needed in
colleges?
Yes 57.7%
No 30%
May be 12.3%
At what age did you attain menarche? 10-12 52.2%
13-15 35%
Above 15 12.8%
Are you aware of menstruation before your first period? Yes 69%
No 31%
What was your primary source of information about
menstruation?
Mother 59.6%
School/teacher 28.1%
Friends 12.3%
Do you think menstruation is a biological process? Yes 59.3%
No 30.7%
Not sure 9.9%
Do you know the average length of menstrual cycle? Yes 72.6%
No 27.4%
The average duration of your menstrual cycle is... 1-2 days 34.3%
3-5 days 46.6%
6-8 days 13.9%
More than 8 days 5.2%
Are you aware of any menstrual disorders (PCOD, PCOS,
amenorrhea)
Yes 29.8%
No 70.2%
Is it possible to get pregnant during menstruation? Yes 67.1%
No 32.9%
Do you feel that your educational institution provides
adequate information on menstrual health?
Yes 68.6%
No 31.4%
What menstrual products do you commonly used? Sanitary pads 60.5%
Tampons 19.4%
Menstrual cups 14.7%
Cloth 5.4%
How do you dispose of used sanitary materials? Wrap and bin 66.9%
Flush 18.7%
Burn Throw without wrapping 10.6%
Do you carry extra menstrual products when leaving home
during your period?
Always 54.4%
Sometimes 31%
Rarely 9.5%
Never 5.1%
Have you ever faced difficulty while accessing menstrual
products?
Yes 74.5%
No 25.5%
Do you track your menstrual cycle? Yes, with an app 39.7%
Yes, manually 35.7%
No 24.6%
Are there restrictions in your house hold during
menstruation?
Yes 72.1%
No 27.9%
Which of the following are you restricted from during
menstruation?
Religious places 50.1%
Cooking 22.5%
Physical contact 21.5%
with others Attending social events 5.9%
Do you feel these restrictions are justified? Yes 61.9%
No 28.4%
Unsure 9.7%
Have you been made to feel ashamed or embarrassed
during menstruation?
Yes 73%
No 27%
Do you feel comfortable discussing about menstruation Yes 70.4%
www.ijzab.com 115
How often do you discuss about menstruation openly with
your family?
Often 46.6%
Sometimes 41.1%
Rarely 12.3%
Do you think more awareness programmes are needed in
colleges?
Yes 57.7%
No 30%
May be 12.3%
At what age did you attain menarche? 10-12 52.2%
13-15 35%
Above 15 12.8%
Are you aware of menstruation before your first period? Yes 69%
No 31%
What was your primary source of information about
menstruation?
Mother 59.6%
School/teacher 28.1%
Friends 12.3%
Do you think menstruation is a biological process? Yes 59.3%
No 30.7%
Not sure 9.9%
Do you know the average length of menstrual cycle? Yes 72.6%
No 27.4%
The average duration of your menstrual cycle is... 1-2 days 34.3%
3-5 days 46.6%
6-8 days 13.9%
More than 8 days 5.2%
Are you aware of any menstrual disorders (PCOD, PCOS,
amenorrhea)
Yes 29.8%
No 70.2%
Is it possible to get pregnant during menstruation? Yes 67.1%
No 32.9%
Do you feel that your educational institution provides
adequate information on menstrual health?
Yes 68.6%
No 31.4%
What menstrual products do you commonly used? Sanitary pads 60.5%
Tampons 19.4%
Menstrual cups 14.7%
Cloth 5.4%
How do you dispose of used sanitary materials? Wrap and bin 66.9%
Flush 18.7%
Burn Throw without wrapping 10.6%
Do you carry extra menstrual products when leaving home
during your period?
Always 54.4%
Sometimes 31%
Rarely 9.5%
Never 5.1%
Have you ever faced difficulty while accessing menstrual
products?
Yes 74.5%
No 25.5%
Do you track your menstrual cycle? Yes, with an app 39.7%
Yes, manually 35.7%
No 24.6%
Are there restrictions in your house hold during
menstruation?
Yes 72.1%
No 27.9%
Which of the following are you restricted from during
menstruation?
Religious places 50.1%
Cooking 22.5%
Physical contact 21.5%
with others Attending social events 5.9%
Do you feel these restrictions are justified? Yes 61.9%
No 28.4%
Unsure 9.7%
Have you been made to feel ashamed or embarrassed
during menstruation?
Yes 73%
No 27%
Do you feel comfortable discussing about menstruation Yes 70.4%
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 109-118, 2025
www.ijzab.com 116
with male family members? No 29.6%
Does your culture/community have specific beliefs about
menstruation?
Yes 56.5%
No 29.3%
Not sure 14.2%
Do you think menstrual stigma affects your mental health? Yes 57.4%
No 31.9%
Not sure 10.6%
Have you ever avoided school/college due to menstruation
related stigma or restrictions?
Yes 73%
No 27%
Do you experience menstrual cramps? Yes, severe 47.5%
Yes, mild 32.4%
No 20.1%
How do you manage menstrual pain? Painkillers 38.1%
Home remedies 22.2%
Rest 32.9%
No management 6.9%
Have you ever consulted a doctor for menstrual issues? Yes 68.3%
No 31.7%
Do you experience irregular periods? Often 42.1%
Sometimes 44%
Never 13.9%
Do you experience mood changes during menstruation? Yes 77.1%
No 22.9%
Would you attend a workshop on menstrual health if
offered?
Yes 70.7%
No 29.3%
Should be men educated about menstruation? Yes 68.8%
No 31.2%
Would you support free sanitary product distribution on
campus?
Yes 70.4%
No 29.6%
Do you think awareness about menstruation has improved
in recent times?
Yes 74.5%
No 25.5%
Do you think menstrual health should be part of the
college curriculum?
Yes 74%
No 26%
Have you missed college due to menstrual discomfort? Yes 67.8%
No 32.2%
Do you feel menstruation affects your academic
performance?
Yes 68.8%
No 31.2%
Do you feel there is enough access to sanitary facilities at
your college?
Yes 69%
No 31%
Do you follow any specific dietary practices during
menstruation?
Yes 56.5%
No 29.1%
Sometimes 14.4%
Have you experienced any rashes irritation or infection
during menstruation?
Yes 71.2%
No 28.6%
Are college toilets Clean and accessible during
menstruation?
Yes 72.8%
No 27.2%
Are there disposable bins for sanitary products in your
college toilets?
Yes 77.1%
No 22.9%
CONCLUSION
Menstrual hygiene is not merely a personal or biological
concern; it is a critical public health, educational, and social
issue that strongly affects the dignity, health, and
opportunities of women. This study provides significant
insights into the awareness, practices, cultural influences,
and challenges related to menstrual hygiene management
(MHM) among college-going women in Vizianagaram,
Andhra Pradesh. The findings underscore that while a
majority of students are aware of menstruation as a
biological function, there is still a considerable gap in
accurate knowledge, hygienic practices, and open
communication. Most participants rely on informal sources
such as mothers and peers for menstrual information,
resulting in the continuation of myths, unsafe practices, and
www.ijzab.com 116
with male family members? No 29.6%
Does your culture/community have specific beliefs about
menstruation?
Yes 56.5%
No 29.3%
Not sure 14.2%
Do you think menstrual stigma affects your mental health? Yes 57.4%
No 31.9%
Not sure 10.6%
Have you ever avoided school/college due to menstruation
related stigma or restrictions?
Yes 73%
No 27%
Do you experience menstrual cramps? Yes, severe 47.5%
Yes, mild 32.4%
No 20.1%
How do you manage menstrual pain? Painkillers 38.1%
Home remedies 22.2%
Rest 32.9%
No management 6.9%
Have you ever consulted a doctor for menstrual issues? Yes 68.3%
No 31.7%
Do you experience irregular periods? Often 42.1%
Sometimes 44%
Never 13.9%
Do you experience mood changes during menstruation? Yes 77.1%
No 22.9%
Would you attend a workshop on menstrual health if
offered?
Yes 70.7%
No 29.3%
Should be men educated about menstruation? Yes 68.8%
No 31.2%
Would you support free sanitary product distribution on
campus?
Yes 70.4%
No 29.6%
Do you think awareness about menstruation has improved
in recent times?
Yes 74.5%
No 25.5%
Do you think menstrual health should be part of the
college curriculum?
Yes 74%
No 26%
Have you missed college due to menstrual discomfort? Yes 67.8%
No 32.2%
Do you feel menstruation affects your academic
performance?
Yes 68.8%
No 31.2%
Do you feel there is enough access to sanitary facilities at
your college?
Yes 69%
No 31%
Do you follow any specific dietary practices during
menstruation?
Yes 56.5%
No 29.1%
Sometimes 14.4%
Have you experienced any rashes irritation or infection
during menstruation?
Yes 71.2%
No 28.6%
Are college toilets Clean and accessible during
menstruation?
Yes 72.8%
No 27.2%
Are there disposable bins for sanitary products in your
college toilets?
Yes 77.1%
No 22.9%
CONCLUSION
Menstrual hygiene is not merely a personal or biological
concern; it is a critical public health, educational, and social
issue that strongly affects the dignity, health, and
opportunities of women. This study provides significant
insights into the awareness, practices, cultural influences,
and challenges related to menstrual hygiene management
(MHM) among college-going women in Vizianagaram,
Andhra Pradesh. The findings underscore that while a
majority of students are aware of menstruation as a
biological function, there is still a considerable gap in
accurate knowledge, hygienic practices, and open
communication. Most participants rely on informal sources
such as mothers and peers for menstrual information,
resulting in the continuation of myths, unsafe practices, and
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 109-118, 2025
www.ijzab.com 117
unnecessary restrictions. Cultural taboos persist even in
higher education settings, often silencing discussions and
hindering healthy behaviours. Health risks associated with
poor menstrual hygiene such as infections, irregularities,
and emotional distress are common among respondents but
often go unaddressed due to embarrassment, lack of
awareness, or limited access to health services. Although
the use of commercial sanitary products is widespread,
economic disparities still force some students to rely on
unsafe alternatives such as unclean clothes. The study also
highlights a promising shift: a majority of the students
expressed a willingness to attend menstrual health
workshops, support the campus-based distribution of
sanitary products, and believe that education and awareness
programs can lead to change. There is growing recognition
among students that menstruation is a public health concern
and should be discussed openly and scientifically.
To bridge the gap between awareness and action,
coordinated efforts are required from educational
institutions, healthcare providers, policymakers,
community leaders, and media platforms. Empowering
young women with accurate information, accessible
facilities, and a supportive environment is essential not
only for their personal well-being but also for achieving
broader goals of gender equality, educational attainment,
and public health improvement. Ultimately, normalizing
menstruation through education, media, and policy is a
powerful step toward building a more inclusive and stigma-
free society in which women can manage their menstrual
health with confidence, comfort, and dignity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research team sincerely acknowledges the support
provided by the Department of Zoology at Maharaja’s
Autonomous College, Vizianagaram. We are deeply
grateful to the students who participated in the survey.
Their candid responses and willingness to share personal
experiences made it possible to examine the lived realities
of young women managing menstrual irregularities. Special
thanks are also extended to the educational institutions in
Vizianagaram that facilitated data collection and
encouraged student centred research initiatives. Their
collaboration reflects a strong commitment to fostering
undergraduate scholarships and inquiry.
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors declare no conflict of interest
ETHICS APPROVAL
This research did not involve any clinical experimentation
or invasive procedures. As a social science-based survey
study, ethical concerns were minimal. The participants
were fully informed of the study's objectives, and verbal
consent was obtained before participation. No identifying
or sensitive personal information was collected.
FUNDING
This study received no specific funding from public,
commercial, or not-for-profit funding agencies.
AI TOOL DECLARATION
The authors declares that no AI and related tools are used to
write the scientific content of this manuscript.
DATA AVAILABILITY
The anonymized datasets generated during and/or analyzed
in this study can be made available upon reasonable request
by contacting the corresponding author.
REFERENCES
Benshaul-Tolonen, A., Aguilar-Gomez, S., Borja-Vega, C.,
& Goyal, R. (2022). Menstrual hygiene management
and women’s health in low-income settings. The Lancet
Public Health, 7(3), e199-e200.
Chandra-Mouli, V., Lane, C., & Wong, S. (2017). What
does not work in adolescent sexual and reproductive
health: A review of evidence on interventions
commonly accepted as best practices. Global Health:
Science and Practice, 3(3), 333–340.
https://doi.org/10.9745/GHSP-D-15-00126.
Garg, S., & Anand, T. (2015). Menstruation related myths
in India: Strategies for combating it. Journal of Family
Medicine and Primary Care, 4(2), 184–186.
https://doi.org/10.4103/2249-4863.154627.
George, R. (2015). Celebrating womanhood: How better
menstrual hygiene management is the path to better
health, dignity and business. WSSCC.
Kansal, S., Singh, S., & Kumar, A. (2016). Menstrual
hygiene practices in context of schooling: A community
study among rural adolescent girls in Varanasi. Indian
Journal of Community Medicine: Official Publication of
Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine,
41(1), 39–44. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-
0218.170964.
Kalyan, G., Walia, A. K., Kaur, M., Kaler, A., Bajwa, A.
K., Kaur, A., Sandhu, A. K., Chauhan, A., Franklin, A.,
& Sharma, A. (2021). A study to assess the knowledge
and practices related to menstruation and menstrual
hygiene among adolescent girls of selected school of
District Ambala, Haryana. IP International Journal of
Medical Paediatrics and Oncology, 7(3), 145–154.
https://doi.org/10.18231/j.ijmpo.2021.029.
Kumari, S., & Kumar, A. (2020). Menstrual hygiene
practices among adolescent girls in India: A review
paper. Journal of Critical Reviews, 7(19), 6315–6319.
http://www.jcreview.com/?mno=125117.
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. (2015).
Operational guidelines for menstrual hygiene scheme
under RKSK. Government of India. https://nhm.gov.in.
www.ijzab.com 117
unnecessary restrictions. Cultural taboos persist even in
higher education settings, often silencing discussions and
hindering healthy behaviours. Health risks associated with
poor menstrual hygiene such as infections, irregularities,
and emotional distress are common among respondents but
often go unaddressed due to embarrassment, lack of
awareness, or limited access to health services. Although
the use of commercial sanitary products is widespread,
economic disparities still force some students to rely on
unsafe alternatives such as unclean clothes. The study also
highlights a promising shift: a majority of the students
expressed a willingness to attend menstrual health
workshops, support the campus-based distribution of
sanitary products, and believe that education and awareness
programs can lead to change. There is growing recognition
among students that menstruation is a public health concern
and should be discussed openly and scientifically.
To bridge the gap between awareness and action,
coordinated efforts are required from educational
institutions, healthcare providers, policymakers,
community leaders, and media platforms. Empowering
young women with accurate information, accessible
facilities, and a supportive environment is essential not
only for their personal well-being but also for achieving
broader goals of gender equality, educational attainment,
and public health improvement. Ultimately, normalizing
menstruation through education, media, and policy is a
powerful step toward building a more inclusive and stigma-
free society in which women can manage their menstrual
health with confidence, comfort, and dignity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research team sincerely acknowledges the support
provided by the Department of Zoology at Maharaja’s
Autonomous College, Vizianagaram. We are deeply
grateful to the students who participated in the survey.
Their candid responses and willingness to share personal
experiences made it possible to examine the lived realities
of young women managing menstrual irregularities. Special
thanks are also extended to the educational institutions in
Vizianagaram that facilitated data collection and
encouraged student centred research initiatives. Their
collaboration reflects a strong commitment to fostering
undergraduate scholarships and inquiry.
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
The authors declare no conflict of interest
ETHICS APPROVAL
This research did not involve any clinical experimentation
or invasive procedures. As a social science-based survey
study, ethical concerns were minimal. The participants
were fully informed of the study's objectives, and verbal
consent was obtained before participation. No identifying
or sensitive personal information was collected.
FUNDING
This study received no specific funding from public,
commercial, or not-for-profit funding agencies.
AI TOOL DECLARATION
The authors declares that no AI and related tools are used to
write the scientific content of this manuscript.
DATA AVAILABILITY
The anonymized datasets generated during and/or analyzed
in this study can be made available upon reasonable request
by contacting the corresponding author.
REFERENCES
Benshaul-Tolonen, A., Aguilar-Gomez, S., Borja-Vega, C.,
& Goyal, R. (2022). Menstrual hygiene management
and women’s health in low-income settings. The Lancet
Public Health, 7(3), e199-e200.
Chandra-Mouli, V., Lane, C., & Wong, S. (2017). What
does not work in adolescent sexual and reproductive
health: A review of evidence on interventions
commonly accepted as best practices. Global Health:
Science and Practice, 3(3), 333–340.
https://doi.org/10.9745/GHSP-D-15-00126.
Garg, S., & Anand, T. (2015). Menstruation related myths
in India: Strategies for combating it. Journal of Family
Medicine and Primary Care, 4(2), 184–186.
https://doi.org/10.4103/2249-4863.154627.
George, R. (2015). Celebrating womanhood: How better
menstrual hygiene management is the path to better
health, dignity and business. WSSCC.
Kansal, S., Singh, S., & Kumar, A. (2016). Menstrual
hygiene practices in context of schooling: A community
study among rural adolescent girls in Varanasi. Indian
Journal of Community Medicine: Official Publication of
Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine,
41(1), 39–44. https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-
0218.170964.
Kalyan, G., Walia, A. K., Kaur, M., Kaler, A., Bajwa, A.
K., Kaur, A., Sandhu, A. K., Chauhan, A., Franklin, A.,
& Sharma, A. (2021). A study to assess the knowledge
and practices related to menstruation and menstrual
hygiene among adolescent girls of selected school of
District Ambala, Haryana. IP International Journal of
Medical Paediatrics and Oncology, 7(3), 145–154.
https://doi.org/10.18231/j.ijmpo.2021.029.
Kumari, S., & Kumar, A. (2020). Menstrual hygiene
practices among adolescent girls in India: A review
paper. Journal of Critical Reviews, 7(19), 6315–6319.
http://www.jcreview.com/?mno=125117.
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. (2015).
Operational guidelines for menstrual hygiene scheme
under RKSK. Government of India. https://nhm.gov.in.
Gopal Anapana et al. Int. J. Zool. Appl. Biosci., 10(5), 109-118, 2025
www.ijzab.com 118
Ministry of Education. (2020). National education policy
2020. Government of India.
https://education.vikaspedia.in/viewcontent/education/p
olicies-and-schemes/national-education-policy-2020.
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. (2014). Rashtriya
Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK): National
adolescent health programme. Government of India.
https://nhm.gov.in/index1.php?lang=1&level=3&sublin
kid=1021&lid=391.
Rajagopal, S., & Mathur, K. (2017). Breaking the silence
around menstruation: Experiences of adolescent girls in
an urban setting in India. Gender & Development,
25(3), 303–317.
Sinha, R. N., & Paul, B. (2018). Menstrual hygiene
management in India: The challenges and the national
policy. Journal of Public Affairs, 18(3), e1674.
Sulabh International Social Service Organisation. (2023).
Menstruation – Taboos, stigma, constraints still persist:
A study on menstrual hygiene management in India.
https://www.sulabhmhm.com.
Torondel, B., Sinha, S., Mohanty, J. R., Swain, T., Sahoo,
P., Panda, B., ... & Dreibelbis, R. (2018). Association
between unhygienic menstrual management practices
and prevalence of lower reproductive tract infections: A
hospital-based cross-sectional study in Odisha, India.
BMC Infectious Diseases, 18(1), 473.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-018-3384-2.
Van Eijk, A. M., Sivakami, M., Thakkar, M. B., Bauman,
A., Laserson, K. F., Coates, S., & Phillips-Howard, P.
A. (2016). Menstrual hygiene management among
adolescent girls in India: A systematic review and meta-
analysis. BMJ Open, 6(3), e010290.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010290.
www.ijzab.com 118
Ministry of Education. (2020). National education policy
2020. Government of India.
https://education.vikaspedia.in/viewcontent/education/p
olicies-and-schemes/national-education-policy-2020.
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. (2014). Rashtriya
Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK): National
adolescent health programme. Government of India.
https://nhm.gov.in/index1.php?lang=1&level=3&sublin
kid=1021&lid=391.
Rajagopal, S., & Mathur, K. (2017). Breaking the silence
around menstruation: Experiences of adolescent girls in
an urban setting in India. Gender & Development,
25(3), 303–317.
Sinha, R. N., & Paul, B. (2018). Menstrual hygiene
management in India: The challenges and the national
policy. Journal of Public Affairs, 18(3), e1674.
Sulabh International Social Service Organisation. (2023).
Menstruation – Taboos, stigma, constraints still persist:
A study on menstrual hygiene management in India.
https://www.sulabhmhm.com.
Torondel, B., Sinha, S., Mohanty, J. R., Swain, T., Sahoo,
P., Panda, B., ... & Dreibelbis, R. (2018). Association
between unhygienic menstrual management practices
and prevalence of lower reproductive tract infections: A
hospital-based cross-sectional study in Odisha, India.
BMC Infectious Diseases, 18(1), 473.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-018-3384-2.
Van Eijk, A. M., Sivakami, M., Thakkar, M. B., Bauman,
A., Laserson, K. F., Coates, S., & Phillips-Howard, P.
A. (2016). Menstrual hygiene management among
adolescent girls in India: A systematic review and meta-
analysis. BMJ Open, 6(3), e010290.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010290.